Introduction

      Around the turn of the first millennium, the entire occident was encompassed by great religious, political and cultural uncertainty. With the collapse of the Roman Empire and the Barbarian Invasions from 375 A.D. to 568 A.D., Roman art, too, disappeared from Western Europe. Invasions by the Huns and Germanic tribes resulted in an artistic and political vacuum, in which a variety of Christian and pagan cultures collided. In the area of modern-day France, a blend of Roman, Germanic, Merovingian and Byzantine art developed. The Viking and Saxon tribes were masters of depiction of stylised animals and invented complex abstract knotting and weaving patterns; the Germanic tribes contributed their portable art and ornamentation.

      Gradually, however, ancient Roman art was rediscovered. Emperor Charlemagne, who, around 800 A.D., made every effort to revive the Roman Empire and even considered himself the successor to the Western Roman Emperors, so furthered the interest in ancient art that it can be referred to as a “Carolingian Renaissance”. He sent his people out to bring ancient artefacts back to his court, and there actually are some examples of Carolingian sculpture which, in a naive manner, emulate these models. At the same time, Carolingian portable art blossomed, and mainly produced ivory carvings and metalwork as well as a few small bronze statues. In architecture, the Roman style with its round arches, massive walls, and barrel vaults became established.

      After the disintegration of the Charlemagne’s global empire, the Germans emerged almost unscathed. On 8 August 870 A.D., the treaty of Meerssen (near Maastricht in the modern-day Netherlands) also conjoined them into a political unit, the Kingdom of the East Franks, which included the Bavarian, Frankish, Saxon, Swabian, Alamannic, and Lorrain Franconian tribes. During the war turmoil of the ensuing decades, however, this federation disbanded again. Only two tribes, the Franks and Saxons, stood so firmly together that after the death of the last Carolingian who was able claim the rule of the East Franks, they first elected as king Duke Conrad of Franconia, who subsequently died in 918 A.D., and after his death the energetic Duke Henry I of Saxony in 919 A.D. With him began the line of Saxon rulers, whose dynasty would hold the throne for more than a century. He succeeded in reuniting all German tribes, as under Charlemagne, and giving them an awareness of their national unity. Otto I, of course, the most talented and successful of the Saxon kings, also intended to achieve the revival of the Carolingian Empire as his highest political ideal. Like his role model Charlemagne, he sought to locate his centre of gravity in Rome. After Otto was crowned Emperor there in 962 A.D., he founded the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation as the spiritual legacy of the Roman and Carolingian empires. It lasted, if only in name, until 1806. Otto’s coronation brought about a new stability in the arts, politics and economy, and thus the Ottonian style. Huge cathedrals were created, as well as monastic churches and other ecclesiastical structures. The secular world – knighthood was in its prime – showed its power by building castles and palaces.

      Nave, Saint-Philibert de Tournus, Tournus (France), c. 1008–1056.

      Intense fighting accompanied the first two Saxon kings throughout almost all of their reigns. It finally ended in victory over the rivals within their own ranks and, in 955 A.D., in the battle of Lechfeld, where they were victorious over the tribes of Southeastern Europe, who had relentlessly been attacking the empire’s borders.

      In Germany, as the empire was henceforth known, a culture blossomed which also became the foundation for a new development in the fine arts. Architecture took the leading role, with such predominance that it gave direction to all the other arts. Even though it was still connected to the art of the Carolingian age, which had been modelled after Roman examples, under the Saxon kings it increasingly took on national characteristics, eventually penetrating the traditional forms and giving rise to a new, local art, as diverse as the characteristics of a landscape and its inhabitants. Since late Antiquity, monasteries, which covered Central and Western Europe in an ever denser network, were and continued to be the patrons of occidental culture.

      Eastern view of nave, Church of St Cyriacus, Gernrode (Germany), 959–1000.

      Western door, Church of St Cyriacus, Gernrode (Germany), 959–1000.

      Yet this art, which was predominant during the first half of the Middle Ages, approximately from the middle of the tenth until the beginning of the thirteenth centuries, was given the name Romanesque art. The term was introduced by a French scientist, Charles de Gerville, around 1818, based on its kinship to Roman architecture, with its round arches, piers, columns and vaults, and has been in general use since 1835. This designation was based on the factually incorrect assumption that this medieval art had developed from the Roman. It is a philological coinage and denotes works of architecture as well as of sculpture and painting. The term was also retained because it had become established and attained legitimacy as it kept alive the memory of the origins of the art. In other countries, too, such as in southwestern France and in parts of Italy, the Romanesque style appeared as a continuation of Ancient Roman art.

      In Germany, the transition from the Pre-Romanesque to the Romanesque style took place between 1020 and 1030; in France around the year 1000. In Poland, the year 1038 with the coronation of Casimir I, the Restorer, is thus recorded. The Romanesque style has numerous special forms and regional expressions. Influences become apparent, such as those of Byzantine, Islamic, Germanic or Roman art. On German soil, Romanesque architecture also produced structures that are not only an expression of the peak of highest artistic accomplishment of the style, but also some of the most brilliant examples of art history in general. This unusual variety of creations was achieved because, unlike its successor, the Gothic style, it was not bound by any strict systems. In the different landscapes it took on its own expressions, which make up the inexhaustible attraction of the works of the Romanesque style. The same attitude which caused so many difficulties in politics for the Germans, that is the tenacious insistence on regional peculiarities and local customs, created an advantage in the art of the Romanesque age, which retained its creative originality until the very end. This given that it was initially interrupted in its development and finally completely dispelled by the Gothic style, which was introduced in France in the middle of the twelfth century. In England, the transition to the Gothic style can be dated back to around 1180 and in Germany to around 1235. Works of art from the Romanesque period can still be found today in France, not only but principally in Normandy, Auvergne and Burgundy. In Italy they are found mainly in Lombardy and Tuscany, in Germany in Saxony and the Rhine valley, as well as in some other European countries and in England and Spain.

      Nave, St Michael’s Abbey Church of Hildesheim, Hildesheim (Germany), 1010–1033.

      I. The Romanesque System of Architecture

      Widely spread all over Christian Europe, the Romanesque style was the first independent, self-contained and unified style. Architecture dominated Romanesque art, and all other artistic movements such as painting and sculpture, which often demonstrated dramatic motifs, were subordinated. The Romanesque style is predominantly a certain use of forms, which branches out into different peculiarities. Nonetheless, most Romanesque structures have certain essential features in common, according to which a system of Romanesque architecture can be established.

      Romanesque architecture can be divided into the Early, High and Late Romanesque periods, whereby the Pre- and Early Romanesque periods can also be subdivided according to dynasties;

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