Introduction to Abnormal Child and Adolescent Psychology. Robert Weis
Читать онлайн книгу.
class. Based on Gast and Baekey (2015).
A third strategy is to use a multiple baseline design. A multiple baseline design involves collecting baseline data on multiple behaviors or assessing the same behavior across multiple settings. The therapist targets each behavior or setting separately and notices the effect of treatment (Gast et al., 2016).
For example, a teacher might collect baseline data about a student’s attention in two settings: math class (Baseline 1) and reading class (Baseline 2). For the first week, the teacher simply rates the student’s attention each day in each setting. For the second week, she uses a sticker chart to reinforce on-task behavior during math class and notices improvement in the student’s attention in that setting alone. During the third week, she also begins using the sticker chart to reinforce on-task behavior in reading class and notices subsequent improvement in that class, too. Because the child’s attention improved only when treatment was applied in that setting, we can be reasonably confident that the treatment was responsible for this improvement (Figure 3.6).
Single subject studies that use treatment reversal or multiple baselines provide strong evidence that treatment is effective for a particular child. The chief limitation of all single subject designs is that causal inferences are based on data from only one individual. Consequently, it is often unclear whether the results of a single subject study are applicable to other people in other settings. The external validity of a study refers to the degree to which results generalize to other people and situations. To establish external validity, results must be replicated with other individuals, in other places, by other clinicians (Ledford, Wolery, & Gast, 2016).
Figure 3.6 ■ A Multiple Baseline Design
Note: Baseline data are collected in two different settings: math class and reading class. When treatment is applied in each class, behavior improves in that class only (Gast, Lloyd, & Ledford, 2016).
Review
Quasi-experimental studies often look like true experiments, but they lack random assignment. As a result, their internal validity is limited. We cannot say that one variable caused or affected another variable in a quasi-experimental study.
Common quasi-experimental designs include pretest-posttest studies (that lack a control group) and nonequivalent groups studies (that lack random assignment to groups).
Single subject studies often rely on reversal designs (ABAB) or multiple baseline designs to determine if a treatment affects children’s behavior.
3.3 Ethical Research with Children and Families
What Ethical Issues Are Important in Research With Children?
Recall that ethics refers to the standards of behavior that are determined to be acceptable for a given profession. In Chapter 1, we examined the APA Ethics Code and several critical issues related to the treatment of children and families with mental health problems. In this section, we will examine ethical issues related to mental health research with children and families. Consider Dr. Hall, a psychologist who wants to conduct research on the treatment of ADHD in children.
Case Study: Research Ethics
Ethical Issues
Dr. Hall is a child psychologist who is researching the effects of behavior therapy on young children with ADHD. She invites parents of preschoolers with this condition to participate in her study. What ethical issues must Dr. Hall keep in mind when conducting research with parents and children?
©iStockphoto.com/SDI Productions
Weighing Benefits vs. Risks
The two most important ethical principles that guide all helping professions are beneficence and nonmaleficence. Beneficence involves balancing the benefits of one’s actions against the risks or costs involved; nonmaleficence means avoiding harm or inflicting the least discomfort possible to reach a beneficial outcome. When conducting research, psychologists must weigh the benefits of the study against the possible harm or discomfort that participants might experience by participating in it.
First, a study must have clear potential benefits that outweigh possible costs. For example, Dr. Hall might want to examine the effects of a school-based behavior therapy program for young children with ADHD. The potential benefits of this treatment include improvements in children’s attention, behavior, and academic skills. These benefits must outweigh the possible costs of participation, such as missed class time. Second, studies that cause extreme distress or physical harm are not permitted, even if they have the potential to be scientifically informative. For example, a researcher could not deny children with ADHD access to effective medications or other treatments simply to examine the long-term effects of ADHD on their development and academic outcomes.
Gaining Parental Consent and Child Assent
Another important ethical principle is autonomy, that is, people’s right to make informed decisions about their lives. To respect autonomy, psychologists gain participants’ consent throughout the research process. Informed consent in research means that participants are aware of the purpose and nature of the study and freely agree to participate in it (American Psychological Association, 2017a).
According to the APA Ethics Code, Dr. Hall must provide the following information to participants so that they can make an informed decision regarding their involvement in the study:
Information about the purpose of the study, its duration, and procedures;
The fact that the study is voluntary and participants can withdraw from it at any time;
Possible risks associated with participating;
Possible research benefits that might be gained;
Other incentives (such as money) associated with participating;
A description of who will have access to their data; and
An opportunity to ask additional questions about the study.
Consent should be viewed as a process that occurs throughout participants’ involvement in the study. Dr. Hall should make sure that her participants are always aware that they are free to withdraw their consent at any time without penalty. Participants must also have ample opportunities to ask questions about the study if they feel unsure about any aspects of their participation (Lasser & Gottlieb, 2018).
Researchers who conduct studies with ethnic minority families must take special care to respect participants’ autonomy and social–cultural backgrounds. For example, Dr. Hall must make sure that she provides information to participants using language that they understand. She must also avoid pressuring families into participating, either by offering excessive incentives (e.g., large sums of money) or implicitly threatening to deny benefits (e.g., limiting their child’s access to services at school). Dr. Hall must also be mindful of the importance of respecting the privacy of families who might be undocumented or who have experienced mistreatment in their countries of origin (Fisher et al., 2017).
Children and adolescents may not be able to consent to research because of their minor status. When conducting research involving children and adolescents, psychologists first obtain consent from their parents or legal caregivers. Then, they obtain assent from the child. Child assent involves explaining the study’s purpose and procedures to children using language that they understand, communicating that their