Natural Environments and Human Health. Alan W Ewert
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et al., 2011; Kline et al., 2011). For example, Russell (2003) and Mitten (1994) propose that therapy done in natural settings can be effective in creating more positive and health-enhancing behaviors. In addition, Ewert and Galloway (2012) and Mitten (2009) suggest that programs such as those that are adventure-based can provide opportunities for achieving health and wellness within society. In a similar fashion, O’Brien et al. (2011) draw connections between outdoor education and skills developed in woodlands and greenspaces and human health and well-being. In a socio-ecological approach to health, health results from an interwoven relationship between people and their environment. Natural environments play a key role in a socio-ecological approach to health because these environments encourage and enable people to relate to each other and the natural world (Maller et al., 2006). Along the same thinking, there are a number of theories and practices related to the restorative nature of natural environments, namely attention restoration, friluftsliv, and psycho-evolutionary connections, as discussed later in the book. We acknowledge that nature can be harsh; many environments because of their geographic location, including altitude, are inclement for humans. Storms, earthquakes, and volcanoes can have devastating effects; still nature is not evil or against humans. We are part of the global and perhaps cosmic ecosystem with both benign and catastrophic forces.
The second primary assumption made in this book is that the effects of natural environments upon human health can actually be felt, observed, and/or measured. Larivière et al. (2012) suggest that while experiences in natural environments often result in positive anecdotal accounts, a substantial amount of variation exists from a variety of empirically derived studies and perspectives. Understanding these potential and real outcomes is made even more urgent by authors such as Lyytimaki (2012) and Louv (2005) who believe that members of industrialized societies are becoming more alienated and separated from nature experiences and more accustomed to indoor and technology-oriented environments; they argue that this separation from nature has adverse effects on individuals’ health and well-being.
The third primary assumption is that in order for the natural environment to positively impact human health we need to care for the environment. With an understanding of our need for nature for health and well-being, people are more likely to be advocates to ensure environmental or ecological quality. People will have a deeper understanding of the human–nature connection and when we feel that on a visceral level we will develop a strong ecological conscience leading to positive action (see Chapter 8).
Defining the Terms
A number of terms are used extensively in this book and are defined in the following way.
• Health is a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity (World Health Organization, 1948). Health and well-being is seen as spanning across six dimensions of a person’s existence. The dimensions involve both the micro (immediate, personal) and macro (global, planetary) environments (Blonna, 2011). The six dimensions of health and well-being include the following:
• Connectedness to nature: An individual’s sense of connection or relationship to the natural world. This concept is often linked to predisposing factors such as personality, past experience with natural environments, and a specific setting and/or situation.
• Constructivism as a learning theory is the active mental constructions of children resulting in the ways in which children organize and act on their knowledge and values.
• Cure is to eradicate a disease condition or symptom(s) that the patient has. Curing happens at the level of the body.
• Environment is the natural, physical, and societal surroundings that affect individuals’ functioning on both the micro and macro levels. On a macro level this might include natural-area buffering from potential storms, floods, or other environmental challenges. The well-being of our micro environment includes the level of functioning in our school, home, worksite, and neighborhoods. Our social support system includes family and friends and is also part of our micro environment; it affects our personal safety by influencing whether or not we are at risk of and fear such issues as theft, crime, and violence. Air and water quality, noise pollution, overcrowding, and other factors that influence our stress level are also affected by our micro environment (Blonna, 2011).
• Ethic of care presumes that there is moral significance in the fundamental relationships and dependencies in life and affirms the importance of caring motivation, emotion, and the body in moral deliberations. The ethic builds on the concept of empathy and is inspired by memories of being cared for and of the idealizations of self (Mitten, 1994).
• Healing is process that leads to a sense of well-being which includes optimism and calmness. Healing happens to the whole person and is about confidence and trust in life. If a disease has no cure, the person may still experience healing. For example, the focus of hospice and palliative care is healing (Mitten, 2004).
• Indigenous refers to people who are native to a particular environment and have maintained living in a natural area or environment insomuch as is realistic in the 21st century. These people are usually ethnic minority groups affected negatively by colonization and often marginalized. In this book examples from indigenous people do not mean that all indigenous people are the same nor do we intend to mythologize indigenous people. Throughout