Black Mens Studies. Serie McDougal III
Читать онлайн книгу.
cultural appropriation and other forms of cultural exploitation. However, intentional, systematic approaches in cultural affirmation or cultural revolution will better position Black males to realize their potential and enhance their understanding of themselves and their possibilities.
←27 | 28→←28 | 29→
Black Males, Racial Identity, and Anti-Black Maleness
Black males stand to draw their greatest source of power from their racial/ethnic identity and solidarity. Yet the opposition and hostility they are confronted with are a direct consequence of the threat they pose to people who benefit from efforts to subordinate Black males. They experience anti-Black maleness which is not only racism but includes a specific kind and level of hostility that the world has reserved for Black men and boys. To perceive this experience, it is important to gain a clear understanding of the various types of racism that confront Black people in general, and how Black males have experienced it both similarly and differently than their female counterparts. This chapter focuses primarily on the unique ways that Black males are impacted by anti-Black-male racism and the tools and steps that have proven effective in maintaining the success, health, and well-being of Black men and boys in hostile, anti-Black male environments.
Race is a socially and culturally defined concept; far more than a biological reference, Black identified people have defined Blackness beyond the ways that Whites have imposed racial designations on them. Blackness is determined by the worldview of those who claim it as their identity (Johnson & Cuyjet, 2009). Blackness for Black people who self-identify as such may mean common history, common struggle/resilience, community, common region or nation or origin, pride, culture, ancestry, values, ideals, identity, and/or physical appearance (Markus & Moya, 2010; McDougal & Jayawardene, 2014). Therefore, the hard distinctions between race and ethnicity relative to Blackness are primarily academic (Markus & Moya, 2010).
Black Male Unique Experiences with Racism
Being victimized by racism is not enough to understand how it functions and affects Black males on a systematic level. Many studies find that African American males report more experiences with racism than any other race/sex category (Belgrave & Brevard, 2015; Cogburn, Chavous, & Griffin, 2011; Sellers, Copeland-Linder, Martin, & Lewis, 2006). The anti-Black male racism they face involves their ←29 | 30→being subjugated not because they are Black or because they are male, but because they are Black and male (Allen, 2013). According to many scholars, Black males have experienced the most damaging consequences of structural racial inequality (Howard, 2014; White & Cones, 1999). According to Swanson, Cunningham, and Spencer (2004), Black males are the most highly stigmatized and stereotyped group in the United States. Whites have been found to respond more negatively to minority males compared to minority females in general (Kaiser, Pratt-Hyatt, & Simpson, 2009). Historically, Black males have been the chief targets of racial terrorism because they are more feared. Plus, the patriarchal leadership structure of the Civil Rights Movement made them generally more visible than Black women (Head, 2004).
According to some researchers, the racism males experience is a form of terrorism, in that both racism and terrorism involve the systematic infliction of physical and mental suffering to force or coerce targets to conform to society’s expectations of them (Pierce, 1992). From this position, Black males have been engaged in warfare for hundreds of years. Racist terrorism can result in trauma and trauma-related symptoms. The consequences of racist and traumatic events share qualities such as suddenness, uncontrollability, and negativity (Wong & Schwing, 2014). These traumatic racist experiences can be stored in one’s memory, and be reactivated triggering negative feelings again and again, such as frustration, anger, and helplessness (Booker, 2000). Some conceptualize the racism Black males’ experience in America as a form of warfare—a constant stream of messages portraying Black men as deviant and criminal, accompanied by policies that disproportionately disadvantage them, often with fatal consequences (Moriearty & Carson, 2012).
Reasons it is Important to Study Racism and Black Males
Any strategy to address the social problems that Black men and Black communities face must involve researching methods for challenging and rendering anti-Black male racism ineffective (Wilson, 1990). Understanding anti-Black male racism is critical when attempting to understand the experiences of Black men because it has in part, shaped the economic, educational, political, etc. conditions under which Black men enter societies’ institutions. Contrarily, the color-blind ideology of ignoring race is a way of avoiding the much harder work of respecting difference. That can simply be a technique of evading the effort needed to address racial inequality on a structural/institutional level.
At the heart of racism is the struggle for power. Williams (1994) argues that enslavement emerged because of Europeans’ desire for profits from colonization, and that anti-Black racism emerged from slavery. Racism persists at many levels of society—psychological, cultural, economic, political, etc.—because Whites continue to benefit from the system of power and privilege that racism systemically produces. White males have constructed a system in which they have wealth, power, and privilege and disproportionate influence over politics, economics, and law in American society. This power and privilege expands their spheres of influence in society, including their abilities to reduce opportunities for Black males (White & Cones, 1999).
The Role of Power in Racism
Failure to understand the role of power in racism can lead to ineffective strategies to challenge Black racial oppression. At some points in African American history, Black people have attempted to remedy racial oppression by appealing to the goodwill of their tormentors. An example: Black members of the military who fought in countless wars, hoping to win the respect of Whites who might respond by not ←30 | 31→treating them as inferiors (Gleijeses, 1996). However, Black men and women continue to experience racism upon return to civilian life (Clarke-Hine & Jenkins, 1999).
Regarding race and oppression, people of one group often impose negative characteristics on people of another group (usually, but not always those with less power) and subjugate them (Markus & Moya, 2010). White haves historically attached negative meaning to Blackness, while Black people have tried to attach positive meaning to it. However, because power is not distributed in society evenly, some will have more power to shape meaning than others (Markus & Moya, 2010).
Reverse Racism
The perpetrators of racism have also used their power to develop defense mechanisms. The term reverse racism implies that a subordinated group is at fault for discriminating against a dominant group. According to White and Cones (1999), the claim of reverse racism is a defense mechanism used to avoid addressing the real problems: (1) lack of an even playing field; and (2) lack of a mutual commitment to making equal opportunity a reality (White & Cones, 1999, p. 84). Some argue that Blacks are not capable of racism. Rome (2004) argues that Whites own a disproportionate share of the resources that racism requires. Therefore, he explains that when a Black person denies a White person an opportunity (e.g., hiring) because of race, this is discrimination, not racism. Differently, Jones (1991a) does not argue that Black people are incapable of racism or morally superior, but because they control a disproportionately limited share of power in society, they are disproportionately less capable of subjugating other people based on race/ethnicity.
Prejudice and Stereotypes
Racial prejudice is often confused with racism. Historically, prejudice has received the most attention in discussions of racism (Jones, 1991a). But, prejudice exists purely at the level