Black Mens Studies. Serie McDougal III
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and sons; how to develop positive male–female relationships and adopt appropriate sex roles; how to make positive contributions to one’s family and community; and how to resist peer pressure and make personal decisions (Majors, 1994). Some rites of passage designed for Black males are based on the Nguzo Saba, consisting of the seven core values of Kwanzaa as created by Maulana Karenga: Umoja (unity), Kujichagulia (self-determination), Ujima (collective work and responsibility), Ujamaa (cooperative economics), Nia (purpose), Kuumba (creativity), and Imani (faith) (Majors et al., 1994).
Afrocentric manhood places emphasis on spiritual beliefs, the importance of human relationships, and the synthesis of opposites as a way of resolving conflict. As the essence of beingness, the spirit can be a source of purpose, power, and ethic for human endeavors. White and Cones (1999) assert that spirituality can be used to promote the principles of harmony and interconnectedness over control and domination. Harmony, an extension of the communal value orientation, emphasizes cooperative relationships over individualism. White and Cones (1999) explain that whereas the Euro-masculine ideal encourages polarities such as male/female, Black/White, conservative/liberal, and pro-abortion/antiabortion, Afrocentric values encourage the synergy of opposites through conciliation, mediation, and dialog. For White and Cones (1999), this is an important principle for Black male thinking and problem-solving.
Case Study of the Brothers of Ujima Program
The Nguzo Saba provides a value structure for Black schools, businesses, social services, and most especially rites of passage. Belgrave, Allison, Wilson, and Tademy (2011) developed a cultural enrichment program for Black boys called Brothers of Ujima. Ujima is the Nguzo Saba Kiswahili word meaning collective work and responsibility. The purpose of the program is to take a strengths-based approach to Black male development by enhancing positive aspects of their selves and identities including self-esteem, ethnic identity, and prosocial behaviors. Furthermore, the program seeks to reduce negative behaviors.
Graves and Aston (2018) investigated this 14-week program. The format involves organizing the boys into Jamaas (KiSwahili for Families). Mzees or respected elders who are mentors and members of the facilitation team are selected to facilitate each Jaama. The curriculum is divided into 14 sessions designed to achieve the following objectives:←80 | 81→
• To help students gain an understanding of the Nguzo Nane (the seven principles of the Nguzo Saba plus the principle of Heshema or respect)
• To increase the knowledge and appreciation of African and African American culture
• To encourage the pursuit of physical health and fitness
• To encourage a critical awareness of myths and stereotypes of African Americans presented in the media
• To develop creative thinking and leadership skills
• To strengthen personal goal setting and commitment to education
• To develop positive ways of coping and handling conflict
• To Increase knowledge of local community history
• To increase awareness of adult role models within the African American community
Moreover, the program aims to help participants:
• Learn about and from successful African American male role models
• Learn about and participate in African cultural activities and traditions
• Become aware of stereotypes and racism and how to deal with them in community and media messages
• Become aware of negative behaviors and their consequences
• Engage in team building activities and discussions designed to promote positive relationships with other males
• Learn the eight principles of the Nguzo Nane and how they can be applied to one’s functioning in everyday life in the home, school, and community
The Impact of Brothers of Ujima
Qualitative analysis, based only on observation of the program and interviews with the parents of boys who had participated in the program, suggests that the boys formed positive fatherly relationships with the group leaders, felt open enough to voluntarily share their school successes and failure with groups leaders, learned self-discipline via the physical activities they engaged in, and had their lives positively changed per how mothers spoke of them (Belgrave & Brevard, 2015). A different study of Brothers of Ujima in a school setting investigated its effects on a group of boys labeled “at-risk” and who were referred to the program for a documented need for emotional and behavioral support (Graves & Aston, 2018). The investigators measured how the program specifically impacted the boys’ internalization of Afrocentric values (i.e., principles of the Nguzo Saba), their resilience, and their sense of racial identity (the degree to which an individual feels a connection with and an attachment to their racial group ←81 | 82→based on a common history and shared values). The results showed that the program increased the boys’ Afrocentric values but had no significant effect on their racial identities or senses of resiliency. The authors speculate that this may be due to the fact the results were based only on the boys’ self-reports of the program’s effects.
Critical Evaluation of Brothers of Ujima
The initial evaluation of Brothers of Ujima (Belgrave & Brevard, 2015) was limited because it was only based on observation and interviews with parents instead of including pretest and posttest experimental design. The program would benefit greatly from some quantitative evaluation with larger populations, building on the existing qualitative work. Another apparent concern that arises from the curriculum is a seeming lack of explicit focus on boyhood, manhood, or masculinity. This may be a possible missed opportunity. Moreover, the Brothers of Ujima program studied by Graves and Aston (2018) was conducted in a school setting involving students who had been referred due to disciplinary problems such as suspension and expulsions. This may signal a possible problem at the level of program implementation. Using the program to address groups of males who are exhibiting problem behaviors may go against one of the tenants of the program’s original design—organizing boys into diverse groups of Black males to enhance their exposure to different experiences and expressions of Black manhood and masculinity. Limiting participation to boys with disciplinary issues is an example of how deficit thinking can be used in otherwise African-centered programming. Black males exhibiting problem behavior in some areas of their lives can benefit from interaction with Black males who are not, and vice versa. Those who are excelling in school can benefit from rites of passage as much as those who are not, but most importantly these groups can benefit from one another. However, the Brothers of Ujima program is among the most promising rites of passage programs available that have been exposed to some systematic evaluations. This is truly a testament to the creators of the program and their desire for improvement and welcoming critical assessment.
Challenges and Advancement for Manhood Training Programs
Manhood training programs have developed in the past few decades across the country, but ultimately, they face challenges. However, Connor (2011b) explains that a major problem with long-term manhood initiatives is a lack of support and resources. Caldwell and White (2014) assert that manhood and masculinity interventions and programs must garner community resources to challenge limited images and understandings of manhood and masculinity. They may also benefit from government resources. Connor (2011b) recommends that funds be diverted from the costs of incarcerating Black men for petty crimes toward long-term preventive initiatives like manhood initiatives.
Majors and Billson (1992) explain that manhood training programs are insufficient alone. There must also be organizations dedicated to conducting research and making policy recommendations to address major issues facing Black males. They also recommend creating responsive and effective schools that are more resourced, infused with Afrocentric history and culture, provide faculty with Afrocentric pre-service and in-service training, and partner with institutions of higher education to enhance college preparation (Majors & Billson, 1992). Race, gender, and identity workshops should be conducted for all professionals who engage in service providing to Black males.