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War, see Mainichi shinbunsha, Nisshin Nichiro sens, vol. 1 of Ichiokunin no Shwashi: Nihon no senshi (Mainichi shinbunsha, 1979), pp. 78-205.

      21. Alvin Coox lists casualties at 12,000: Coox, Nomonhan, vol. 1, p. 9.

      22. Manshikai, vol. 1, p. 84.

      23. Hirano, p. 148.

      24. Manshikai, vol. 1, p. 297.

      25. Mansh keizai zuhy (Dalian: Dalian sh

k kaigisho, 1934), p. 7.

      26. The best general histories of Sino-Japanese relations during the Republican period are by Marius B. Jansen: The Japanese and Sun Yat-sen (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1967), and Japan and China: From War to Peace, 1894-1972 (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1975), pp. 224-314.

      27. McCormack refers to this as “two-faced diplomacy”: McCormack, pp. 124-126.

      28. Ogata, p. 18.

      29. Yoshihashi, pp. 143-144; Edward Earl Pratt, “Wanpaoshan, 1931: Japanese Imperialism, Chinese Nationalism and the Korean Problem in Northeast China on the Eve of the Manchurian Incident,” Master's thesis, University of Virginia, May 1983.

      30. Yoshihashi, pp. 143-145.

      31. Ogata, p. 18.

      32. For basic sources on the military history of the Manchurian Incident, see Chapter 1, note 1.

      33. For a brief account of the Kwantung Army, see Coox, “The Kwantung Army Dimension,” pp. 409-428. For exhaustive treatment, see Coox, Nomonhan, vols. 1-2.

      34. Hayashi Takehisa, Yamazaki Hiroaki, and Shibagaki Kazuo, Nihon shihon-shugi, vol. 6 of Koza teikokushugi no kenky: rytaisenkan ni okeru sono sai-hensei (Aoki shoten, 1973), p. 250; Kaneko Fumio, “Shihon yushutsu to shoku-minchi,” in

, ed., Sekai daikykki, vol. 2 of Nihon teikokushugishi (Tky daigaku shuppankai, 1987), p. 337; Hikita Yasuyuki, “Zaisei kin'yz,” in Asada Kyji and Kobayashi Hideo, eds., Nihon teikokushugi no Mansh shihai: jgonen sens o chshin ni (Jichsha, 1986), pp. 866, 889.

      35. Johnson, MITI and the Japanese Miracle, pp. 130-132.

      36. Sometimes called the reform bureaucrats, the term new bureaucrats is loosely applied to officials who supported a variety of state-strengthening economic and social reforms which often had a fascist tinge. For more detail, see Johnson, MITI and the Japanese Miracle, pp. 116-156; Barnhart, pp. 71-76, 171-175; and William Miles Fletcher, The Search for a New Order: Intellectuals and Fascism in Prewar Japan (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1982), pp. 88-105.

      37. For basic references, see Chapter 1, note 2.

      38. Hara Akira, “1930 nendai no Mansh

sei seisaku,” in Mansh, 1972),. p. 46.

      39. Ishid

Kiyotomo, “Mantetsu chsabu wa nan de atta ka (11),” no. 17 of “Mantetsu chsabu kankeisha ni kiku,” Ajia keizai 28, no. 6 (June 1987), p. 55.

      40. On the Manchurian settlement program, see Mansh

iminshi kenkyukai, ed.

      41. Manshikai, vol. 2, p. 84.

      42. Mantetsu, ed., Mansh nenkan: Shwa 8 nen (Dalian: Mansh

kai, 1933), pp. 38-39.

      43. The phrase comes from John W. Dower, Empire and Aftermath: Yoshida Shigeru and the Japanese Experience, 1878-1954 (Cambridge: Council on East Asian Studies, Harvard University, 1979), p. 85.

      44. On the occupation of China, see Lincoln Li, The Japanese Army in North China, 1937-1941: Problems of Political and Economic Control (New York: Oxford University Press, 1976), and John Hunter Boyle, China and Japan at War, 1937-1945: The Politics of Collaboration (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1972).

      45. On the Co-prosperity Sphere, see E. Bruce Reynolds, “Anomaly or Model? Independent Thailand's Role in Japan's Asian Strategy, 1941-1943,” and Ken'ichi Got

, “Cooperation, Submission, and Resistance of Indigenous Elites of Southeast Asia in the Wartime Empire,” in Peter Duus, Ramon H. Myers, and Mark R. Peattie, eds., The Japanese Wartime Empire, 1931-1945 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996), pp. 243-273 and 274-301, respectively; Joyce C. Lebra, Japanese-Trained Armies in Southeast Asia: Independence and Volunteer Forces in World War II (New York: Columbia University Press, 1977); Willard H. Elsbree, Japan's Role in Southeast Asian Nationalist Movements, 1940 to 194$ (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1953); Josef Silverstein, ed., Southeast Asia in World War II: Four Essays (New Haven: Yale University Southeast Asia Studies, 1966); and Alfred W. McCoy, ed., Southeast Asia under Japanese Occupation (New Haven: Yale University Southeast Asia Studies, 1980).

      46. Carter J. Eckert, “Total War, Industrialization, and Social Change in Late Colonial Korea,’ in Peter Duus, Ramon H. Myers, and Mark R. Peattie, eds., The Japanese Wartime Empire, 1931-1945 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996), pp. 3-39.

      47. Wan-yao Chou, ‘The K

minka Movement in Taiwan and Korea: Comparisons and Interpretations,’ in Peter Dims, Ramon H. Myers, and Mark R. Peattie, eds., The Japanese Wartime Empire, 1931-1945 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996), pp. 40-68.

       PART II

      THE MANCHURIAN INCIDENT

      AND THE NEW

      MILITARY IMPERIALISM,

      1931–1933

      3 War Fever

       Imperial

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