Ecology of Indonesian Papua Part Two. Andrew J. Marshall
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5.5. Inland Water Ecosystems in Papua: Classification, Biota, and Threats
DAN A. POLHEMUS AND GERALD R. ALLEN
DUE TO ITS LARGE SIZE, broad elevational range, and great topographic complexity, the island of New Guinea supports a diverse array of inland water ecosystems. All of the major aquatic ecosystem types are represented in Papua, ranging from obvious features such as the Mamberamo and Digul rivers and major lakes such as Paniai and Yamur, to thousands of smaller streams and rivers, a variety of other lakes occupying both lowland and upland basins, innumerable small seeps and springs, and vast coastal wetlands. This extensive array of aquatic ecosystems has in turn developed a rich and highly endemic biota.
Aquatic Ecosystem Classification
Aquatic ecosystems are in many ways more amenable to classification than terrestrial ecosystems because they possess discrete boundaries and can be unambiguously defined by the presence of water. Even so, terminology has presented a persistent problem in aquatic ecosystem classification schemes, since different authors have often employed ecological terms such as ‘‘habitat’’ and ‘‘ecosystem’’ in different contexts and then discussed these terms without providing the necessary definitions. As defined by Polhemus et al. (1992), individual aquatic ecosystems consist of a watermass with relatively sharp, delineable boundaries, enclosing resident organisms, and possessing discrete physiochemical features. Commonly encountered examples of such ecosystems include lakes, marshes, streams, and estuaries. Two basic components of such ecosystems are the biota, or totality of living matter, and the environment, which represents the nonliving physiochemical components of the ecosystem, including spatial dimensions. Although the term ‘‘habitat’’ has often been used more or less interchangeably with ‘‘ecosystem,’’ it is more properly applicable in an autecological sense to designate all ecosystem requirements of a resident species, including space. Habitats are thus not spatially exclusive subdivisions of an ecosystem, in contrast to divisions such as zones, strata, and reaches.
The various types of aquatic ecosystems present in Papua may be assigned to major divisions or classes, for example lotic (flowing) versus lentic (standing). Such classes are based on descriptions of both broad-scale environmental features, such as hydrological regime, water depth, salinity, and so on, and characteristic major taxa of the biota (with the fauna being generally more distinctive and useful in this regard than the flora). Within these broad classes, discrete ecosystem types may be defined by criteria that include altitude, topography, water character (e.g., temperature, turbidity), cultural influences (environmental and biological), and the presence of individual genera or species. In general, oxygen content and pH are usually not adequate descriptors at the ecosystem level because in many waters, particularly those of low ionic content and abundant flora, strong photosynthesis and respiration can diurnally change the levels of such characteristics significantly (pH sometimes by more than two units).
Utilizing the system outlined above and further explained in Polhemus et al. (1992), at least 15 types of