The Jama Masjid in Delhi is the largest mosque in India. It was built by the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan in 1656 and took six years to complete. The 28 meter square courtyard accommodates up to 20,000 people at prayer time. The central arch is framed by two minarets, behind which three black and white marble domes cover the prayer hall inside.

      Even though it was in Delhi that Islam had established its Indian empire, the rest of India, including the Deccan, soon saw smaller provincial governments emerging. The uneasy truce between these Islamic kingdoms and the established Hindu kingdoms was broken occasionally. Architecturally, however, the cross influence of both cultures proved to be both invigorating as well as long-lasting.

      The Great Mughals

      In AD 1526, Babur, a young prince from Samarkand in Central Asia, defeated the Delhi sultan Ibrahim Lodi, and established the Mughal dynasty. It was Babur's grandson Akbar who finally brought a measure of political stability to the north.

      The Mughal period is synonymous in the history of the subcontinent with some of the finest developments in art and architecture. Akbar's political policy of integrating disparate elements and forging alliances with Hindu Rajput kings, who had earlier been sworn enemies, was reflected in the aesthetic idiom that was created under the Mughals, with the fusion of Persian, Muslim and classical Hindu styles. The high point of Mughal architecture is, of course, the Taj Mahal, but each of the six great rulers of the dynasty can lay claim to memorable buildings and works of art.

      The East India Company

      At the turn of the 16th century, the entire sub-continent was divided into small warring fiefdoms, creating a certain amount of political instability. Vasco da Gama had already landed at Calicut in southern India in 1498, and tales of India's wealth had reached almost all parts of the world, including Europe. The Portuguese, the Dutch, the French and the British all wanted to establish colonies in India, although their motives ranged from the religious to the economic. The trade and other links between various European powers and Mughal India led to the British establishing the East India Company, which eventually extended its commercial interests to play a more political role in the subcontinent. By 1857, the last Mughal emperor had been deposed by the British, who had brought most of India under the dynasty's domination. Finally, India was declared to be a colony of Imperial Britain.

      Two hundred years of colonial rule created a drastic schism in architectural developments. The Western rulers brought new concepts of building which they imposed on the traditional vocabulary. Broadly classified as the Colonial style, this became a hybrid manifestation of new and old structural forms and decorative elements. Public institutions such as railway stations, post offices and administrative centers entered the realm of building. Domestic architecture was typified by the bungalow. For nearly 5,000 years, the Indian subcontinent had lured outsiders who came to conquer but stayed and merged their identities and became a part of India. The British, however, remained outsiders, and their economic and political exploitation of the country finally ended in 1947 when India became independent. India's struggle for political freedom was largely peaceful even though independence was gained after the traumatic partition of India and the creation of Pakistan.

      The modern phase in Indian architecture is still very young. Though Western masters of the 20th century such as Le Corbusier and Louis Kahn have left their imprint on the urban landscape, there is a growing debate among a new generation of Indian architects on tradition versus modernity and what is most relevant to India in the 21st century.

      Also known as the Constantia Palace, La Martiniere College in Lucknow is named after the French adventurer Claude Martin, who made Lucknow his home. In 1793, he was reputed to be the richest European living there. Constantia Palace was built in the style of a Gothic chateau, lavishly decorated with animals and mythological figures on the façade. Of the two cannons on the terrace, one was cast by Martin himself, along with the bronze bell. Martin died in 1840 and in his will stipulated that the building become a school for boys.

      Early postcard of the Indian Museum in Calcutta, the largest and oldest museum in India. Designed by Walter Granville (1875), it exhibits the classic qualities of colonial architecture in its planning and façade details.

      Residential Spaces

      Traditional Indian households lived by the joint family system whereby the many occupants and complex interpersonal relationships necessitated clearly demarcated spaces. Public and private areas were separate, and women kept protected from the public gaze. The internal courtyard was the center, restricted to family members, with rooms opening out on either side, ensuring privacy to their inhabitants.

      The stone façades of havelis in Rajasthan. Ornate jharokhas (balconies) with wooden shuttered openings project out onto the street. They are shaded by arched chhajjas (eaves).

      North India: The Haveli

      The haveli or mansion was the house of the rich, owned by either the nobility or by rich traders who attempted to imitate the lifestyle of royalty. Often built on narrow streets, the outer walls of larger havelis rose 3-4 stories high, casting shadows on their neighbors. Interiors thus remained cool. The narrow streets also acted as wind funnels, further cooling the buildings.

      The haveli was built on a high plinth, with steps leading up to the entrance. The first room, facing the street, was the baithak or public area. It signified the transition between the public space outside the house and the private or personal space within. This was a totally male domain into which women rarely entered. The baithak opened out into another room, beyond which, completely shielded from the gaze of strangers, was the central courtyard.

      A pillared and covered corridor called the baramdah or verandah ran around the courtyard on all levels, leading into various rooms that formed the living quarters. Rooms on the upper floors also had canopied balconies called jharokhas looking down into the street. Shielded by carved stone latticework screens (jaalis), they allowed the inhabitants to look out without being seen, and also served to break the force of hot winds, allowing the interiors to be airy. There was usually a teh khana or basement, which was the cool retreat of the house and also the place where valuables were stored. Security was, in fact, a major determinant in the plan. Doors had low lintels and high thresholds, probably to ensure that an unwelcome person could not enter easily. The staircases, too, were twisted and narrow, with uncomfortably high risers.

      Section of a typical haveli showing the hierarchy of private and public spaces and connecting passageways.

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