Figure 1.2: The hierarchy of goals as it relates to inspiration, motivation, engagement, and attention.

      Regardless of its origins, Maslow (1969) called the state of feeling a connection to something greater than self transcendence, which he associated with a sensation of oneness with the world and moments of understanding outside of ordinary experience. As individuals repeatedly fulfill their goals at this level, they often also experience humility, wisdom, or a creative outpouring. Once individuals experience transcendence, they will attempt to prolong that state. However, only a small percent of the population ever truly sustains this connection over a long period of time; Mother Teresa, Mahatma Gandhi, and Martin Luther King Jr. might be considered examples of those who have. This is not to minimize the impact that brief experiences of connection to something greater than self can have on an individual. Indeed, even if they are rare or not sustained for long, we should seek out and cherish such moments when they occur.

Self-Actualization

      Maslow (1943) defined needs and goals related to self-actualization as “the desire to become more and more what one is, to become everything that one is capable of becoming” (p. 382). In other words, they represent the desire to pursue self-identified goals. Goals related to self-actualization can be described as global motivators, as individuals will work tirelessly to achieve goals they have personally identified as important. Inherent in their definition, needs and goals related to self-actualization vary widely from individual to individual. For example, in order for one student to experience self-actualization, he may need to express himself creatively through visual art or music, whereas another student might be driven to reach her potential as an athlete. Regardless of the focus of the goals, all efforts to this end involve “the full use and exploitation of talents, capabilities, [and] potentialities” (Maslow, 1954, p. 150).

      It is important to note that self-actualization marks a transition within Maslow’s hierarchy from needs and goals related to deficiency to those of personal growth. The lower four levels—(1) physiology, (2) safety, (3) belonging, and (4) esteem within a community—define needs an individual must meet in order to avoid negative physical or psychological sensations. On the other hand, needs and goals related to self-actualization and connection to something greater than self articulate an individual’s desire for personal growth. It is not coincidental that the goals at these higher levels also mark a shift from engagement and attention to inspiration and motivation, as shown in figure 1.2 (page 5).

Esteem Within a Community

      Individuals’ esteem within a community is highly dependent on their own self-representations or self-concept—the way they think about themselves. Researchers generally distinguish between self-esteem, or “global self-representations,” and “specific representations, such as academic self-concept” (Peixoto & Almeida, 2010, p. 158). For example, a student’s academic self-concept could differ drastically from his athletic self-concept, as he might excel on the racetrack or baseball diamond but struggle during school hours. Students’ academic self-concepts can be even further divided: a student may have a high self-concept for her abilities in mathematics and science but a lower self-concept for her abilities related to language arts or history. These specific self-concepts contribute to students’ esteem as a whole. As Cynthia G. Scott, Gerald C. Murray, Carol Mertens, and E. Richard Dustin (1996) explained:

      Both academically and interpersonally, students’ self-esteem is affected daily by evaluations not only from school personnel but also from peers and family members. Because of the multitude of academic and social roles that students assume, they must constantly evaluate and reevaluate their knowledge and skills and compare them to others. (pp. 286–287)

      Thus, recognizing the various communities in which students regularly participate can be useful when trying to understand and meet their esteem needs.

      Maslow (1943) postulated that esteem can emanate from two sources: (1) self-esteem and (2) esteem from others. Needs related to self-esteem, he posited, involve “the desire for strength, for achievement, for adequacy, for confidence in the face of the world, and for independence and freedom” (p. 381), while esteem from others involves a “desire for reputation or prestige … recognition, attention, importance or appreciation” (p. 382). It is important to note, however, that people tend to consider self-esteem a higher version of esteem derived from others, as esteem derived from others is “dependent on external validation,” which can “create stress, hostility, and conflict” (Crocker, 2002, p. 608).

      As stated previously, esteem within a community is a type of deficiency motivation. When individuals’ esteem needs are not met, they will focus on fulfilling those needs before moving on to needs related to personal growth (self-actualization and connection to something greater than self). As such, regardless of whether esteem is derived from the self or from others, a sense of esteem is critical to confidence and, when underdeveloped, has been correlated with psychological issues such as depression (Sowislo & Orth, 2013).

Belonging

      Needs and goals related to belonging drive the social behaviors of humans and compel us to seek out fulfilling, affectionate relationships with others. In order for belonging needs to be met, individuals’ relationships must be two-directional and elicit feelings of acceptance and connectedness.

      The need to belong is so important that, when unfilled, it can have drastic negative effects on students’ mental and physical health. To illustrate, consider this letter from a student in Illinois:

      As I started my 8th grade year, things got tougher. School got harder, friends got meaner, and I felt like there was no one I could talk to. Soon after that, I started cutting. It became a regular thing for me. Feel sad, grab scissors, feel better. (Rachel’s Challenge, 2015, p. 7)

      Clearly, feelings of belonging (or the lack thereof) immediately affect the emotional health of students. When left unaddressed, such feelings can cause destructive behaviors, sometimes evolving into suicidal thoughts:

      In my school, I’m known as the “loner,” the “emo;” people just don’t care enough to get to know me. I once dreamed, but the way I’ve been treated caused me to give up. This has had such a negative effect on me, I suffer from depression. I developed a plan for suicide and almost carried it through. (Rachel’s Challenge, 2015, p. 31)

      The previous quotations are featured in Saved by a Story: Letters of Transformation and Hope, a book that compiles thank-you notes received by Rachel’s Challenge (2015). The booklet contains dozens of letters from students who, when their needs for belonging went unmet at school, physically harmed themselves, attempted suicide, or bullied other students. Once these students felt they belonged at school, their negative outlooks were transformed, as exemplified at the end of the letter from the student in Illinois:

      I realized there are people who care about me, and people I care about. I realized that I could die tomorrow, and that I didn’t want to leave this world thinking I had no one. (Rachel’s Challenge, 2015, p. 7)

      Such examples highlight the importance of a sense of belonging, particularly because meeting such needs mitigates negative mindsets that may contribute to students’ dangerous behaviors. In an analysis of previous research on the topic, Xin Ma (2003) found that a sense of belonging among students was positively related to the following factors.

      ▸ Engagement in class

      ▸ Persistence with difficult work

      ▸ Positive attitudes toward other racial-ethnic groups

      ▸ Students’ expectations of academic success

      ▸ Intrinsic interest in academic work

      ▸ Higher course grades

      ▸ Teachers’ ratings of students’ academic effort

      The