Moravian Soundscapes. Sarah Justina Eyerly
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uses “Mohican” or “Muhheakunnuk” (https://www.mohican.com). Similarly, I also use “Delaware,” rather than “Munsee” or “Unami,” since it is the term currently used by many descendant communities. For more information, see the website of the Delaware Tribe of Indians, a descendant community in Oklahoma and Kansas (http://delawaretribe.org/services-and-programs/historic-preservation/removal-history-of-the-delaware-tribe/), and the website of the Delaware Nation at Moraviantown, a descendant community in Ontario, Canada (http://delawarenation.on.ca).
3. Obadiah Holmes’s account of the Gnadenhütten massacre is recorded in T. Holmes, The American Family of Rev. Obadiah Holmes (Columbus, OH: 1915).
4. Earl P. Olmstead, David Zeisberger: A Life among the Indians (Kent, OH: Kent State University Press, 1997), 333.
5. Letter written at Bethlehem, April 5, 1782. MissInd 151.6.8a, MAB.
6. Olmstead, David Zeisberger, 333.
7. “Johann Heckewelder’s Travel Diary of 1792,” MissInd 213.7, MAB. Translated in Paul A. W. Wallace, Thirty Thousand Miles with John Heckewelder, Or, Travels among the Indians of Pennsylvania, New York & Ohio in the 18th Century. The Great Pennsylvania Frontier Series (Lewisburg, PA: Wennawoods Publishing, 1998), 261.
8. For detailed histories of violence during the American Revolution, including religiously motivated violence, see Holger Hoock, Scars of Independence: America’s Violent Birth (Broadway Books, 2018); and John Corrigan, Lynn S. Neal, eds., Religious Intolerance in America: A Documentary History (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2010).
9. Olmstead, David Zeisberger, 333.
10. Quoted in Elizabeth Cobbs Hoffmann, Jon Gjerde, and Thomas G. Paterson, eds., Major Problems in American History: Documents and Essays I (Wadsworth: Cengage Learning, 2012), 205.
11. Gary Tomlinson, The Singing of the New World: Indigenous Voice in the Era of European Contact, New Perspectives in Music History and Criticism (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2009), 5.
12. For more information on the daily integration of hymns into Moravian life, see Sarah Justina Eyerly, “‘Singing from the Heart’: Memorization and Improvisation in an Eighteenth-Century Utopian Community” (PhD diss., University of California Davis, 2007).
13. Although hymnody has often been overlooked as a cultural and musical form, there has been a recent resurgence in scholarly interest in hymnody from disciplines as diverse as religious studies, anthropology, performance studies, Native American and Indigenous studies, and African American studies. Interdisciplinary methods of studying hymnody featured prominently in a recent roundtable at the 2019 meeting of the Society for Early Americanists, “The Hymn in Early America: A Roundtable,” chaired by Chris Phillips (Lafayette College). The roundtable featured presentations on the revival hymn and the epic function in early America, poetry and hymnody in Uncle Tom’s Cabin, Samson Occom’s hymns and the articulation of Native space, and two different discussions of Moravian hymns.
14. This study is indebted to the work of Barry Truax and R. Murray Schafer in defining the key concepts of “acoustic ecology,” “acoustic environment,” and “soundscape.” Truax’s Handbook for Acoustic Ecology and Acoustic Communication, have been especially helpful in building a framework for study of the acoustic environments of eighteenth-century Moravian missions. Based on Truax’s call to account for all environmental sounds within a given landscape, I aim to highlight the importance of studying the complex and interrelated patterns of sound that surrounded Moravian Christians and how these soundscapes helped to construct personal, social, environmental, and religious identity. See Barry Truax, Acoustic Communication, Handbook for Acoustic Ecology (Burnaby, BC: Cambridge Street Records, 1999); Barry Truax, “Soundscape, Acoustic Communication and Environmental Sound Composition,” in A Poetry of Reality: Composing with Recorded Sound, ed. Katherine Norman (Reading, UK: Harwood Academic Publishers, 1997); Barry Truax, “Paradigm Shifts and Electroacoustic Music: Some Personal Reflections,” Organised Sound 20, no. 1 (April 2015): 105–110; R. Murray Schafer, The Tuning of the World (New York: Knopf, 1977); and R. Murray Schafer, “Soundscapes and Earwitnesses,” in Hearing History: A Reader, ed. Mark M. Smith (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2004), 417–431. I have also benefitted from path-breaking work in the field of sound studies by Richard Leppert, Mark M. Smith, Bruce Smith, Douglas Kahn, Alain Corbin, David Samuels, and Steven Feld. See especially Raymond Leppert, The Sight of Sound: Music, Representation, and the History of the Body (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993); Mark M. Smith, “Introduction: Onward to Audible Pasts,” in Hearing History; Bruce Smith, The Acoustic World of Early Modern England: Attending to the O-Factor (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999); Douglas Kahn, Noise, Water, Meat: A History of Sound in the Arts (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1999); Alain Corbin, “Identity, Bells, and the Nineteenth-Century French Village,” in Hearing History; Corbin, Village Bells: Sound and Meaning in the Nineteenth-Century French Countryside (New York: Columbia University Press, 1998); David W. Samuels, Louise Meintjes, Ana Maria Ochoa, and Thomas Porcello, “Soundscapes: Toward a Sounded Anthropology,” Annual Review of Anthropology 39 (2010): 329–345; Steven Feld, Sound and Sentiment: Birds, Weeping, Poetics, and Song in Kaluli Expression, Publications of the American Folklore Society 5 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1982); and Steven Feld and Keith H. Basso, eds., Senses of Place, School of American Research Advanced Seminar Series (Santa Fe, NM: School of American Research Press, 1996).
15. Recent scholarship on Moravian mission work in general includes Stefan Hertrampf, Unsere Indianer-Geschwister waren lichte und vegnügt: Die Herrnhuter Missionare bei den Indianern Pennsylvanias, 1745–1765 (Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, 1997); Carola Wessel, Delaware-Indianer und Herrnhuter Missionare im Upper Ohio Valley (Halle: Halle Verlag der Franckeschen Stiftungen im Niemeyer-Verlag, 1997); Jane T. Merritt, At the Crossroads: Indians and Empires on a Mid-Atlantic Frontier, 1700–1763 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2003); Merritt, “Dreaming of the Savior’s Blood: Moravians and the Indian Great Awakening in Pennsylvania,” The William and Mary Quarterly 54, no. 4 (1997): 723–746; Amy C. Schutt, Peoples of the River Valleys: The Odyssey of the Delaware Indians, Early American Studies (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2007); Rachel Wheeler, To Live upon Hope: Mohicans and Missionaries in the Eighteenth-Century Northeast (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2008); and A. G. Roeber, ed., Ethnographies and Exchanges: Native Americans, Moravians, and Catholics in Early North America, Max Kade German-American Research Institute Series (University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2008).
16. Walter Woodward, “‘Incline Your Second Ear This Way’: Song as a Cultural Mediator in Moravian Mission Towns,” in Ethnographies and Exchanges: Native Americans, Moravians, and Catholics in Early North America, 125–142; Rachel Wheeler and Sarah Eyerly, “Songs of the Spirit: Hymnody in the Moravian Mohican Missions,” Journal of Moravian History 17, no. 1 (2017): 1–26; Rachel Wheeler and Sarah Eyerly, “Singing Box 331: Re-Sounding Eighteenth-Century Mohican Hymns from the Moravian Archives,” The William and Mary Quarterly 76, no. 4 (October, 2019): 649–696.
17. Glenda Goodman, ‘“But They Differ from Us in Sound’: Indian Psalmody and the Soundscape of Colonialism, 1651–75,” The William and Mary Quarterly 69, no. 4 (2012): 793–822; Kristin Dutcher Mann, The Power of Song: Music and Dance in the Mission Communities of Northern New Spain, 1590–1810 (Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press; Academy of American Franciscan History, 2010); Geoffrey Baker, Imposing Harmony: Music and Society in Colonial Cuzco (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2008); and Geoffrey Baker, “Indigenous Musicians in the Urban ‘Parroquias de Indios’ of Colonial Cuzco, Peru,” Il Saggiatore Musicale 9, no. 1/2 (2002): 39–79. For additional recent scholarship on transcultural musical exchanges involving vocal