The Power of Plagues. Irwin W. Sherman
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of the population needed to maintain an infection varies inversely with the transmission efficiency and directly with the death rate (virulence). Thus, virulent parasites, that is, those causing an increased number of deaths, require larger populations to be sustained, whereas parasites with reduced virulence may persist in smaller populations.
Measles, caused by a virus, provides an almost ideal pattern for studying the spread of a disease in a community. The virus is transmitted through the air as a fine mist released through coughing, sneezing, and talking. The virus-laden droplets reach the cells of the upper respiratory tract (nose and throat) and the eyes and then move on to the lower respiratory tract (lungs and bronchi). After infection, the virus multiplies for 2 to 4 days at these sites and then spreads to the lymph nodes, where another round of multiplication occurs. The released viruses invade white blood cells and are carried to all parts of the body using the bloodstream as a waterway. During this time the infected individual shows no signs of disease. But after an incubation period (8 to 12 days), there is fever, weakness, loss of appetite, coughing, a runny nose, and a tearing of the eyes. Virus replication is now in high gear. Up to this point the individual probably believes his or her suffering is a result of a cold or influenza, but when a telltale rash appears—first on the ears and forehead and then spreading over the face, neck, trunk, and to the feet—it is clearly neither influenza nor a common cold. Once a measles infection has begun, there is no treatment to halt the spread of the virus in the body.
Measles passes from one host to another without any intermediary; recovery from a single exposure produces lifelong immunity. As a consequence, measles commonly afflicts children, and for that reason it is called a “childhood disease.” Although measles has been eradicated in the United States because of childhood immunization, it can be responsible for a death rate of ~30% in lesser-developed countries. It is one of the ten most frequent causes of death in the world today. One of the reasons that measles may disappear from a community is immunity that may be the result of natural recovery from an infection or immunization.
The spread of infection from an infected individual through the community can be thought of as a process of diffusion, in which the motions of the individuals are random and movement is from a higher concentration to a lower one. Therefore, factors affecting its spread include the size of the population, those communal activities that serve to bring the susceptible individuals in contact with infectious individuals, the countermeasures used (e.g., quarantine, hospitalization, and immunization), and seasonal patterns. For example, in northern temperate zones, measles spreads most frequently in the winter months because people tend to be confined indoors, while in Iceland, when the spring thaw is followed by a harvest, there are also summer peaks because of communal activities on the farm.
Epidemiologists have as one of their goals the formulation of a testable theory to project the course of future epidemics. It is possible to calculate the critical rate of sexual partner exchange that will allow an STD to spread through a population, i.e., when R0 is >1. For HIV, with a duration of infectiousness of 0.5 year and a transmission probability of 0.2, the partner exchange value is 10 new partners per year. For other STDs, such as untreated syphilis and gonorrhea, with somewhat higher transmission probabilities, the values are 7 and 3, respectively. Despite the development of mathematical equations, predicting the spread of an epidemic can be as uncertain as forecasting when a hurricane, blizzard, or tornado will occur. Indeed, making predictions early in a disease outbreak by fitting simple curves can be misleading because it generally ignores interventions to reduce the contact rate and the probability of transmission. For SARS, fitting an exponential curve to data from Hong Kong obtained between February 21 and April 3, 2003, predicted 71,583 cases 60 days later, but using a linear plot, 2,410 cases were predicted. In fact, by May 30, 2003, according to the WHO, there were >8,200 cases worldwide and >800 deaths. By July 5, 2003, a headline in the New York Times declared “SARS contained, with no more cases in the last 20 days.”
Other uncertainties in predictability may involve changes in travel patterns with contact and risk increased. Sociological changes may also affect the spread of disease—children in school may influence the spread of measles, as occurred in Iceland when villages grew into towns and cities. Quarantine of infected individuals has also been used as a control measure. Generally speaking, quarantine is ineffective, and more often than not it is put in place to reassure the concerned citizens that steps at control are being taken. As is noted above, though, there are other interventions that do affect the spread of disease by reducing the number of susceptible individuals. One of the more effective measures is immunization.
A Measles Outbreak
In the year 2015, for some, Disneyland wasn’t the happiest place on Earth. It was in January of that year that a single measles-infected individual was able to spread the disease to 145 people in the United States and a dozen others in Canada and Mexico. Patient zero in the 3-month-old Disneyland outbreak was probably exposed to measles overseas and while contagious unknowingly visited the park. (The measles strain in the Disneyland outbreak was found to be identical to one that spread through the Philippines in 2014, where it sickened ~50,000 and killed 110. It is likely that patient zero acquired the virus there.)
Measles spreads from person to person by sneezing and coughing; the virus particles are hardy and can survive as long as 2 h on doorknobs, handrails, elevator buttons, and even in air. For the first 10 to 14 days after infection, there are no signs or symptoms. A mild to moderate fever, often accompanied by a persistent cough, runny nose, inflamed eyes (conjunctivitis), and sore throat, follows. This relatively mild illness may last 2 or 3 days. Over the next few days, the rash spreads down the arms and trunk, then over the thighs, lower legs, and feet. At the same time, fever rises sharply, often as high as 104 to 105.8ºF (40 to 41ºC). The rash gradually recedes, and usually lifelong immunity follows recovery. Complications, which may include diarrhea, blindness, inflammation of the brain, and pneumonia, occur in ~30% of cases. Between 1912 and 1916 there were 5,300 measles deaths per year in the United States. Yet all that changed in 1968 with the introduction of the measles vaccine; in the United States, measles was declared eliminated in 2000.
What, then, underlies the Disneyland outbreak?
On average, every measles-infected person is able to spread the disease to ten other people, i.e., its R0 value is 10. With this multiplier, measles will spread explosively; indeed, with multiplication every 2 weeks and without any effective control (such as immunization), millions could become infected in a few months. It has been estimated that to eliminate measles (and whooping cough) ~95% of children under the age of 2 must be immunized. For disease elimination not everyone in the population need be immunized, but it is necessary to reduce the number of susceptible individuals below a critical point (called herd immunity).
An analysis of the Disneyland outbreak of measles shows that that those infected were unvaccinated. The researchers have calculated that the number of vaccinated individuals might have been as low as 50%. The outbreak that began in California was a reflection of the anti-vaccination movement, which had led some parents to believe the false claim that the vaccine for measles caused an increase in autism. (The “evidence” for this was based on just 12 children and has been thoroughly discredited by massive studies involving half a million children in Denmark and 2 million children in Sweden.) Then, too, some parents believe their children are being immunized too often and with too much vaccine because pharmaceutical companies are recklessly promoting vaccination in pursuit of profit. Other parents contend that the vaccine is in itself dangerous. It is not, as is evidenced in Orange County, where Disneyland is located: the outbreak sickened 35 people, including 14 children. And although a measles vaccine has been available worldwide for decades, according to the WHO, about 400 people a day died in 2013.
The response to the outbreak at Disneyland prompted the California Senate to pass a bill, SB 277, which required almost all California schoolchildren to be fully vaccinated in order to attend public or private school, regardless of their parents’ personal or religious beliefs. In signing the bill, Governor Edmund G. (Jerry) Brown wrote: “While it is true that no medical intervention is without risk, the evidence shows