Storytelling in Opera and Musical Theater. Nina Penner
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1 (1984): 28–30.
25. Singing is the primary means of communication in most operas, but in opéra comique, Singspiel, and most musicals, speaking is another. In many musicals and some operas (e.g., Auber’s La muette de Portici [1828]), dance also plays an important role.
26. Carolyn Abbate, Unsung Voices: Opera and Musical Narrative in the Nineteenth Century (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991), 119, 123. Following Abbate, Scott McMillin, The Musical as Drama (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2006), 126, contends that characters in musicals do not hear the orchestra unless a fictional source is identified (e.g., the onstage band in Cabaret [1966]). His stance on whether characters hear the so-called nondiegetic vocal music is unclear.
27. Kendall L. Walton, Mimesis as Make-Believe: On the Foundations of the Representational Arts (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1990), 182; Gregory Currie, Narratives and Narrators: A Philosophy of Stories (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010), 59.
28. Mary Ann Smart, Mimomania: Music and Gesture in Nineteenth-Century Opera (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004), 7; Roger Parker, “Verdi and La traviata: Two Routes to Realism,” in La traviata, ed. Gary Kahn (London: Overture Publishing, 2013), 32.
29. Raymond Knapp and Mitchell Morris, “The Filmed Musical,” in The Oxford Handbook of the American Musical, ed. Raymond Knapp, Mitchell Morris, and Stacy Wolf (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011), 143.
30. Nina Penner, “Opera Singing and Fictional Truth,” Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism 71, no. 1 (2013): 85–86.
31. For a fuller exposition of this argument, see Nina Penner, “Rethinking the Diegetic/Nondiegetic Distinction in the Film Musical,” Music and the Moving Image 10, no. 3 (2017): 9–12.
32. On the contrast between internal and external perspectives, refer to Currie, Narratives and Narrators, 49. For an example of an external explanation of the changes to Higgins’s music, see McMillin, Musical as Drama, 67–68.
33. Paul Woodruff, The Necessity of Theater: The Art of Watching and Being Watched (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008), 94–95.
34. Penner, “Diegetic/Nondiegetic Distinction,” 7.
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