Telescopic Work for Starlight Evenings. William F. Denning
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to obviate the difficulties of chromatic aberration, but erroneously concluded that it was not feasible. He could devise no means to correct that dispersion of colour which, in the telescopes of his day, so greatly detracted from their effectiveness. His failure seems to have had a prejudicial effect in delaying the solution of the difficulty, which was not accomplished until many years afterwards.
Fig. 3.
Sir Isaac Newton4.
Fig. 4.
Gregorian Telescope.
The idea of reflecting-telescopes received mention as early as 1639; but it was not until 1663 that Gregory described the instrument, formed of concave mirrors, which still bears his name. He was not, however, proficient in mechanics, and after some futile attempts to carry his theory into effect the exertion was relinquished. In 1673 Cassegrain revived the subject, and proposed a modification of the form previously indicated by Gregory. Instead of the small concave mirror, he substituted a convex mirror placed nearer the speculum; and this arrangement, though it made the telescope shorter, had the disadvantage of displaying objects in an inverted position. But the utility of these instruments was not demonstrated in a practical form until 1674, when Hooke, the clever mechanician, gave his attention to the subject and constructed the first one that was made of the kind.
Fig. 5.
Cassegrainian Telescope.
In the meantime (1672) Sir Isaac Newton had completed with his own hands a reflecting-telescope of another pattern. In this the rays from the large concave speculum were received by a small plane mirror fixed centrally at the other end of the tube, and inclined at an angle of 45°; so that the image was directed at right angles through an opening in the side, and there magnified by the eye-lens. But for a long period little progress was effected in regard to reflecting-telescopes, owing to the difficulty of procuring metal well adapted for the making of specula.
Fig. 6.
Newtonian Telescope.
In 1729 Mr. Chester Moor Hall applied himself to the study of refracting-telescopes and discovered that, by a combination of different glasses, the colouring of the images might be eliminated. It is stated that Mr. Hall made several achromatic glasses in 1733. A quarter of a century after this John Dollond independently arrived at the same result, and took out a patent for achromatic telescopes. He found, by experiments with prisms, that crown and flint glass operated unequally in regard to the divergency of colours induced by refraction; and, applying the principle further, he obtained a virtually colourless telescope by assorting a convex crown lens with a concave flint lens as the object-glass. Dollond also made many instruments having triple object-lenses, and in these it was supposed that previous defects were altogether obliterated. Two convex lenses of crown glass were combined with a concave lens of flint glass placed between them.
Whether we regard Hall or Dollond as entitled to the most praise in connection with this important advance, it is certain that it was one the value of which could hardly be overestimated. It may be said to have formed a new era in practical astronomy. Instruments only 4 or 5 feet long could now be made equally if not more effective than those of 123 and 150 feet previously used by Huygens and Hevelius. All the troubles incidental to these long unmanageable machines now disappeared, and astronomers were at once provided with a handy little telescope capable of the finest performances.
Fig. 7.
Common Refracting-Telescope.
Reflecting-telescopes also underwent marked improvements in the eighteenth century. Short, the optician, who died in 1768, was deservedly celebrated for the excellent instruments he made of the Gregorian form. Towards the latter part of the century William Herschel, by indomitable perseverance, figured a considerable number of specula. Some of these were mounted as Newtonians; others were employed in the form known as the “Front view,” in which a second mirror is dispensed with altogether, and the rays from the large concave speculum are thrown to the side of the tube and direct to the eyepiece. This construction is often mentioned as the “Herschelian,” but the idea had long before been detailed by Le Maire. In 1728 he presented a paper to the Académie des Sciences, giving his plans for a new reflecting-telescope. He proposed to suppress the small flat speculum in Newtonians, and “by giving the large concave speculum a little inclination, he threw the image, formed in its focus, to one side of the tube, where, an eye-glass magnifying it, the observer viewed it, his back at the time being turned towards the object in the heavens; thus the light lost in the Newtonian telescope by the second reflexion was saved.”
Fig. 8.
The Le Mairean or Herschelian Telescope.
After making several instruments of from 18 to 24 inches aperture, Herschel began one of larger calibre, and it was finished on August 28, 1789. The occasion was rendered historical by the discovery of one of the faintest interior satellites of Saturn, Enceladus. The large telescope had a speculum 48 inches in diameter; the tube was made of rolled or sheet iron, and it was 39 ft. 4 in. long and 4 ft. 10 in. in diameter. It was by far the largest instrument the world had seen up to that time; but it cannot be said to have realized the expectations formed of its powers, for its defining properties were evidently not on a par with its space-penetrating power. Many of Herschel’s best observations were made with much smaller instruments. The large telescope, which was mounted in Herschel’s garden at Slough, soon fell into comparative disuse, and, regarding it as incapable of further usefulness, Sir John Herschel sealed it up on January 1, 1840.
During the next half-century we hear of no attempts being made to surpass the large instrument which formed one of the working-tools of Herschel. Then, however, Lord Rosse entered the field, and in the ‘Philosophical Transactions’ for 1840 described a reflector of 3-feet diameter which he had set up at his residence at Parsonstown, Ireland. In 1845 the same nobleman, distinguished alike for his scientific attainments as for his generosity and urbanity of disposition, erected another telescope, the large speculum of which was 6 feet in diameter, 5½ inches in thickness, and its weight 3 tons. Lord Rosse subsequently cast a duplicate speculum of 6 feet and weighing 4 tons. In point of dimensions this instrument far exceeded that of Herschel, and it is still in use, retaining its character as the largest, though certainly not the best, telescope in existence. Its tube is made of 1-inch deal, well bound together with iron hoops; it is 56 feet long and 7 feet in diameter.
Mr. Lassell soon afterwards made large specula. He erected one of 2-feet aperture and 20-feet focus at his residence at Starfield, near Liverpool, and in 1861 mounted one of 4-feet diameter and 37-feet focus. This instrument was for some time usefully employed by him at Malta. After Mr. Lassell’s return to England his great telescope remained in a dismantled state for several years, and ultimately the speculum was broken up and “consigned to the crucible of the bell-founder.”
It is not a little remarkable that Herschel, Rosse, and Lassell personally superintended and assisted in the construction of the monster instruments with which their names are so honourably associated.
In or about the year 1867 a telescope of the Cassegrainian form, and having a metallic speculum 4 feet in diameter and 28-feet focus, was completed by Grubb of Dublin for the observatory at Melbourne. This instrument, which cost something like £14,000, was found defective at first, though the fault does not appear to have rested with the optician.
Up to this period specula