Growing Up and Getting By. Группа авторов
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the other segments of schools.
A school situated in the ‘right place’
To grasp the expansion of post-16, inner-city schools, there are two important analytical features that need to be understood. The first of these are the ‘socio-symbolic’ boundaries (Wacquant, 2015) of the city. These boundaries define differences within the Stockholm region and affect all schools. As such, schools situated in the urban periphery become discredited by their proximity to low-income groups, the number of migrants and other social characteristics. If we also account for student group composition, elevated in- and outflow of students and performance rated struggles, peripheral schools are dually punished in the contemporary educational markets (Bunar, 2009; 2011). On the other hand, schools situated in affluent areas may ‘profit’ (Bourdieu, 1999) from locational advantages. While this is usually discussed in the literature about suburbia (Jellison Holme, 2002) and rural boarding schools (Gaztambide-Fernández, 2009), less has been written about wealthier urban areas.
Schools situated in the inner-city of Stockholm clearly illustrate how locational profits are accumulated. Besides profiting from the proximity to socio-economically well-off residents, many inner-city schools strategically appropriate the immediacy of the vibrant city as a competitive advantage. This includes references to lifestyles, shopping culture and outdoor eating on webpages and marketing pamphlets (Larsson and Hultqvist, 2017). As we will discuss later, these references echo the excitement of urbanity that some students long for. Nevertheless, these strategies differ, and the latter is generally referred to by recently established for-profit independent schools and in some cases also non-profit independent schools.
Our beautiful school is located in the corner of Kungstensgatan/Drottninggatan [two main streets], close to The Stockholm School of Economics. With Stadsbiblioteket [Stockholm city library] around the corner and restaurants, coffee houses and shops nearby, we have a perfect and central location. [Kungstensgymnasiet, 2019]6
Our school is located on a calm street, a stone’s throw from Odenplan [a central hub for commuters] and in proximity to Stockholm’s entire cultural supply. [Tillskärarakademin, 2019]7
Stockholm International School is located in the centre of Stockholm next to a park, on a hilltop near the main business/shopping area. [Stockholm International School, 2019]8
Additionally, the proximity to cultural and historical landmarks are used as references. In contrast to the vibrant city, the latter could more often be found amid elite schools. Among the older elite schools, it is manifest in anniversary books, documents, webpages and pamphlets where tradition is displayed as a sign of distinction and legacy. These schools frequently integrate their geographical, architectural and scholarly past with other historical events – drawing attention to their difference to more recently-established schools. The historical legacy of public elite schools is among other things demonstrated by references to the foundation of the school, followed by the key persons, the architectural layout and the inauguration. As one school states, ‘Östra Real’s current building was commissioned in 1910, but the official inauguration took place with the opening ceremony of Gustav V [Swedish king] in January 1911’ (Östra Reals gymnasium, 2019).9 Together with famous alumni, prestigious awards and stories of success, the historical legacy becomes an important institutionalised asset. As Rizvi (2014) shows, history can be an advantage when competing with schools that offer more contemporary assets. To continue this discussion in detail, we want to elaborate on the importance of architecture and school buildings, and, in particular, how these buildings are used strategically.
The strategic use of architecture and school buildings
The strategic manifestation of architecture and school buildings has been analysed before. Brooks and Waters (2015: 91), for instance, illustrate the use of images by elite schools and how these ‘support a narrative stressing tradition, stability and reliability’. Similar results could be found in the Swedish context, yet, in the contemporary Swedish system, the strategic use of architecture and school buildings varies substantially. Some schools put much effort into ‘the right location’, including the school buildings, whereas others rely more specifically on the geographical placement.
While many pre-1992 independent schools are housed in ordinary school buildings dating back to the late 1800s and early 1900s, recent schools either have to purchase or rent office and residential buildings. These buildings vary in age, appearance and location. In some cases, they have been thoroughly converted into schools. In other words, little separates them from the regular outline of the city. This makes it hard to define what constitutes a contemporary school building. There are several reasons for this development. Mostly it is related to limited opportunities due to restricted space and real estate prices within the inner-city. As a consequence, whereas public schools – with a few exceptions – have a permanent address, independent schools do occasionally re-locate.
The construction of a historical legacy
Schools and educational firms that are able to purchase or rent centrally located, historical buildings, regularly use the term ‘ancient’ as an imaginative description. It is a term with symbolic connotations, which is used to create a feeling of authenticity (Zukin, 2008) and security. Therefore, it is especially interesting when it is used by schools that have a limited history. One recent example comes from the re-location of Jensen Södra which is one of two hierarchically low–mid segment10 (Forsberg, 2015) inner-city schools, owned by a for-profit firm that provides education from pre-school level to adult extension studies. When Jensen Södra strategically re-located from a modest inner-city office building in 2017 to its current location in Gamla stan (‘Old town’), the term ancient became a signum. The webpage states ‘You can find us in ancient premises in the old town in the city centre of Stockholm’ (Jensen Södra, 201911). To a certain degree, the present building (Figure 2.1) does have a historical legacy and it is located in one of the older regions of Stockholm. Still, education has not been the primary use of the building. Rather, the location and building are used as a way to emulate older schools and gain prestige.
Figure 2.1: Jensen Södra school
In contrast, some prestigious independent schools have been able to purchase buildings that were once used as schools or converted houses that architecturally resemble schools. Accompanied by the ‘right’ symbolic assets, such as networks and renowned board members, these schools have grown to become prominent agents on the contemporary educational market. A further asset, and significant difference to other independent schools, is the non-profit