1 3 René Descartes, Meditations on First Philosophy [Meditationes de Prima Philosophia, 1641], from the Third Meditation, trans. John Cottingham (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986). © 1986 by Cambridge University Press. Reproduced with permission of Cambridge University Press.

      2 4 René Descartes, Meditations on First Philosophy [Meditationes de Prima Philosophia, 1641], from the Fifth Meditation, trans. John Cottingham (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986, revd. 1996). © 1986 by Cambridge University Press. Reproduced with permission of Cambridge University Press.

      3 6 Gottfried Leibniz, Part I, §§ 7–15, 19–26 (with omissions) from Theodicy: Essays on the Goodness of God, the Liberty of Man and the Origin of Evil [Essais de théodicée sur la bonté de Dieu, la liberté de l’homme et l’origine du mal, 1710], Part I, §§ 7–15, 19–26 (with omissions), trans. E. M. Huggard (London: Routledge, 1951).

      4 9 Søren Kierkegaard, Concluding Unscientific Postscript [Afsluttende Uvidenskabelig Efterskrift, 1846], pp. 26–35 and 177–82 (with minor modifications), trans. David F. Swenson (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1941). © 1941 Princeton University Press. Reproduced with permission of Princeton University Press.

      5 11 John Wisdom, ‘IX.-Gods’, pp. 185–206 from Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, 45:1 (June 1945). © 1945 Oxford University Press. Reproduced with permission of Oxford University Press.

      6 12 John Hick, Problems of Religious Pluralism, pp. 36–44 with omissions, (London: Macmillan, 1985). © 1985 Palgrave Macmillan, a division of Macmillan Publishers. Reproduced with permission of Springer Nature.

      1 3 René Descartes, extracts from parts v and vi from Discourse on the Method [Discourse de la Méthode, 1637], pp. 131–4, 142–4 from John Cottingham, Robert Stoothoff and Dugald Murdoch (ed. and trans.), The Philosophical Writings of Descartes (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985). © 1986 by Cambridge University Press. Reproduced with permission of Cambridge University Press.

      2 4 George Berkeley, pp. 1–5, 11, 17–18, 26–8, 35–41, 52–3, 58, 67, 71–2 from On Motion [De Motu, 1721], from A. A. Luce and T. E. Jessop (ed.), The Works of George Berkeley, trans. A. A. Luce (London: Nelson, 1948–51).

      3 7 Immanuel Kant, ‘Analogies of Experience: Second Analogy’, B 233–42 from Critique of Pure Reason [Kritik der reinen Vernunft, 1781; 2nd edn 1787], pp. 218–24 (with omissions and minor modifications) from N. Kemp Smith (ed.), Immanuel Kant’s Critique of Pure Reason (London: Macmillan, 1929, repr. 1965). Translation © The Estate of Norman Kemp Smith 1929, 1933, 2003. Reproduced with permission of Springer Nature.

      4 9 Karl Popper, ‘Conjectures and Refutations’, from ‘Science: Conjectures and Refutations’; lecture delivered in 1953 and originally published under the title ‘Philosophy of Science: A Personal Report’, chapter 1 (abridged) from Conjectures and Refutations (London: Routledge, 1963; 3rd edn 1969). © 1969 by Karl Popper. Reproduced with permission of Alpen-Adria-Universität Klagenfurt/Karl Popper collection.

      5 10 Carl G. Hempel, ‘Explanation in Science and in History’, pp. 7–33 (abridged) from R. G. Colodny (ed.), Frontiers of Science and Philosophy (London and Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1962). © 1962. Reproduced with permission of University of Pittsburgh Press.

      6 11 Grover Maxwell, ‘The Ontological Status of Theoretical Entities’, pp. 3–15 (abridged) from Herbert Feigl and Grover Maxwell (ed.), Scientific Explanation, Space, and Time, vol. 3, Minnesota Studies in the Philosophy of Science (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1962). © 1962 by University of Minnesota Press. Reproduced with permission of University of Minnesota Press.

      7 12 Thomas S. Kuhn, chapters 2, 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10, pp. 10–11, 64–5, 76–7, 81–3, 93–5, 112, 117–18 from The Structure of Scientific Revolutions [1962] (2nd edn, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1970). © 1970 University of Chicago Press. Reproduced with permission of University of Chicago Press.

      1 6 Immanuel Kant, extracts from chapters 1 and 2 from Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals [Grundlegung zur Metaphysik der Sitten, 1785], from trans. H. J. Paton, The Moral Law (London: Hutchinson, 1948). © 1948. Reproduced with permission of Taylor & Francis Books UK.

      2 9 Friedrich Nietzsche, pp. 26, 29, 32, 33, 39, 186, 201, 203 from Beyond Good & Evil: Prelude to a Philosophy of the Future [Jenseits von Gut und Böse, 1886], trans. Walter Kaufmann (New York: Random House, 1966). © 1966 by Penguin Random House LLC. Used by permission of Random House, an imprint and division of Penguin Random House LLC. All rights reserved.

      3 10 W. D. Ross, chapter II from ‘What Makes Right Acts Right?’, pp. 16–24 (with omissions) from The Right and the Good (Oxford: Clarendon, 1930). © 1930 by Oxford University Press. Reproduced with permission of Oxford University Press.

      4 11 Alasdair MacIntyre, extracts from chapter 6, pp. 62–8 and chapter 15, pp. 216–24, After Virtue: A Study in Moral Theory (London: Duckworth, 1981; 2nd edn 1985).

      5 12 Bernard Williams, excerpts from chapter 8 ‘Knowledge, Science, Convergence’, pp. 135–55 from Ethics and the Limits of Philosophy (London: Collins/Fontana, 1985). © 1985 by Taylor & Francis Books UK. Reproduced with permission of Taylor & Francis Group.

      1 8 Aldo Leopold, ‘The Land Ethic’, pp. 201–26 (abridged) from A Sand County Almanac: And Sketches Here and There (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1949; repr. 1977), © 1949 by Oxford University Press. Reproduced with permission of Oxford University Press.

      2 9a Judith Jarvis Thomson, ‘A Defense of Abortion’, pp. 47–66 from Philosophy & Public Affairs 1:1 (Autumn 1971). © 1971 John Wiley & Sons. Reproduced with permission of John Wiley & Sons.

      3 9b Patrick Lee and Robert P. George, ‘The Wrong of Abortion’, in Andrew I. Cohen and Christopher Wellman (ed.), Contemporary Debates in Applied Ethics (Oxford: Blackwell, 2005). © 2005 John Wiley & Sons. Reproduced with permission of John Wiley & Sons.

      4 10 Peter Singer, ‘Famine, Affluence, and Morality’, pp. 229–243 from Philosophy & Public Affairs, 1:3 (1972). © 1972 John Wiley & Sons. Reproduced with permission of John Wiley & Sons.

      5 11 James Rachels, ‘Active and Passive Euthanasia’, pp. 78–80 from The New England Journal of Medicine 292:1 (1975). © 1975 Massachusetts Medical Society. Reproduced with permission of Massachusetts Medical Society.

      6 12 Leon R. Kass, ‘The Wisdom of Repugnance’, pp. 17–26 from The New Republic, 216:22 (June 2, 1997). © 1997 by Leon Kass. Reproduced with permission of the author.

      1 7 Jean-Jacques Rousseau, extracts from Book I, chapters 6, 7, 8; Book II, chapters 1, 3, 4; Book IV, chapter 2, pp. 13–16; 17–19; 23–4; 26–7; 28–9; 30–1; 105–6 from The Social Contract and Discourses [Du contrat social, 1762], trans. G. D. H. Cole. (London: Dent, 1955). Reproduced with permission of Everyman’s Library, an imprint of Alfred A. Knopf.

      2 8 Georg Hegel, extracts from pp. 142, 156–9, 182–3, 185, 187–8, 257–61, addition to 261, 273, 279, 281, 308, 316–18 in Philosophy of Right