Introduction

      Recent scholarship on personal relationships and family life suggests that new intimacies and new kinds of commitment are being forged in present-day societies. Relationships and living arrangements that are now commonplace include single-parent families, cohabiting couples, post-divorce and ‘blended’ families, same-sex unions, ‘living apart but together’ (LATS), ‘families of choice’, ‘friends as family’ and queer intimacies. Family diversity is said to have coincided with aspirations towards more ‘democratic relationships’ in the sphere of intimacy. Strong desires for more egalitarian and more open personal relationships influences not only how parents relate to their children, with a new emphasis on childhood agency and the rights of the child. They also legitimate lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender and queer (LGBTQ+) relationships.¹

Rising divorce rates, teenage pregnancies, single parenthood, same-sex unions and cohabiting couples are often viewed as threats to the core values of a society. However, this book explains that these trends do not amount to evidence of a decline of commitment and caregiving responsibilities. The wide range of personal relationships and living arrangements across societies is a sign that the concept of ‘family’ is becoming more fluid and variable. The approval and popularity of the term ‘family’, which is being extended to describe close friendships and alternative kinds of intimacies, suggest a strong social yearning to preserve principles of mutual commitment and reciprocity that bind people together. This diversity in living arrangements thrives despite government attempts to standardize families through housing policies, tax breaks for married couples, divorce and post-divorce parenting laws, family planning, and levels of access to new reproductive technologies, and so on.

      The first central aim of this book is to document and analyse the growing diversity in personal and family life, while assessing the complex range of institutional constraints and freedoms that influence or shape these relationships. A growing public recognition of family diversity has triggered alarm among certain politicians, religious leaders, academics and journalists. The welfare of children and elderly relatives is viewed as a major issue in an era characterized by heavy employment commitments among family members, and, conversely, low pay or unemployment. Complex forms of commitment and care are being experienced by parents and wider kin at a time when governments in many countries are reducing social welfare provisions. Public debate about ‘good’ and ‘bad’ parenting has been fuelled by anxieties over collapsing moral standards caused by the decline of ‘proper’ family values. Moral panics about ‘family decline’ expressed by governments, the media and religious bodies are regularly accompanied by calls to return to the superior values of some past golden age of family life. Even though it is just one of many diverse living arrangements, the nuclear family model remains a powerful icon of tradition and stability, often perceived as an antidote to today’s social problems. However, as the following chapters show, upholding one version of family life as a model – white, heterosexual, middle class – not only obstructs knowledge about how families actually live. It can have negative consequences for individuals and families that diverge from this ideal. Family diversity is therefore a key theme within this book.

A second, related theme is intersectionality. This involves the study of the intersections of gender, sexuality, social class, race and ethnicity to assess how these social factors frame personal and family life. Intersectional approaches identify patterns of domination involving interlinked modes of oppression (Collins and Bilge 2016). Intersectionality enables scholars to scrutinize power disparities in private and public spheres that operate as forms of social stratification and inequality. Applying intersectionality perspectives to the analysis of changing family life allows scholars to spotlight social inequities, privilege and oppression as part of a critical theoretical perspective on families. Since the millennium, critical approaches have been used to frame analyses of family life to ensure that they are inclusive and relevant. As Few-Demo and Allen state:

      Gender, feminist, and intersectional approaches offer critical analyses of how women, men, and children in different kinds of families experience privilege