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miR-214, miR-29b, miR-590 ↑ (Qiao et al. 2019), (Yuan et al. 2018) Methamidophos peripheral blood miR-125b, miR-141-5p, miR-142a, miR-150 ↓ Omethoate peripheral blood lymphocytes miR-145 (Qiao et al. 2019), (Wang et al. 2019) PFOA serum miR-199a, miR-26b ↑ (Wang et al. 2012) Organophosphates serum miR-155 ↓ Guillain-Barre Syndrome (Costa et al. 2020), (Yuan et al. 2018) Heavy metals Arsenic urine miR-21, miR-126, miR-155, miR-221↑ albuminuria (miR-21) (Kong et al. 2012) Arsenic urine miR-205↓ (Gao et al. 2019) Arsenic peripheral blood mononuclear cells miR-21↑ skin cancers (Wallace et al. 2020), (Liu et al. 2018) Arsenic cord blood has-let-7a, miR-107, miR-126, miR-16, miR-17, miR-195, miR-20a, miR-20b, miR-26b, miR-454, miR-96, miR-98 ↑ (Rager et al. 2014) Arsenic bronchial epithelial cells miR-190 ↑ (Beezhold et al. 2011) Arsenic plasma miR-423-5p, miR-423-5p, miR-142-5p -2, miR-454-5p cardiometabolic disease (Beck et al. 2018) Arsenic plasma -320c-1, and -320c Arsenic serum miR-126, miR-155 (Wallace et al. 2020), (Ruiz-Vera et al. 2019) Lead placenta miR-146a, miR-10a, miR-190b, miR-431 ↑ (Wallace et al. 2020), (Li et al. 2015) Lead placenta miR-651 ↓ Lead blood miR-21-5p, miR-122-5p ↑ (Wallace et al. 2020), (Guo et al. 2019) Lead (battery factory workers) blood miR-520c-3p, miR-148a, miR-141,and miR-211↑. (Wallace et al. 2020), (Xu et al. 2017) Lead (battery factory workers) blood miR-572 and miR-130b↓ (Wallace et al. 2020), (Xu et al. 2017) Mercury (female factory workers) blood miR-92a-3p, miR-122-5p, miR-451a, and miR-486-5p↑ (Wallace et al. 2020), (Ding et al. 2016) Mercury (female factory workers) blood miR-16-5p, miR-30c-3p,miR-181a-5p, and let-7e-5p↓ (Wallace et al. 2020), (Ding et al. 2016) Other 100 nm gold nanoparticles cord blood has-let-7a ↑ (Balansky et al. 2013) Asbestos peripheral blood miR-103 ↑ mesothelioma (Weber et al. 2012) Occupational grain dust serum miR-18a-5p, miR-124-3p and miR-574-3p ↑ lung diseases (Straumfors et al. 2020) Occupational grain dust serum miR-19b-3p and miR-146a-5p ↓ lung diseases (Straumfors et al. 2020)

      Abbreviations: PM (particulate matter); SNPs (single nucleotide polymorphisms); MV (microvesicles); DEP (diethyl phthalate); TRAP (traffic-related air pollution); O3 (ozone); PAHs (polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons); PCBs (polychlorinated biphenyls); POPs (persistent organic pollutants); HCB (hexachlorobenzene); DDT (dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane); PFOA (perfluorooctanoic acid)

The best miRNA biomarkers are likely to be those that indicate injury or perturbation to a specific cell type, such as the previously discussed hepatocyte-specific miR-122. Other cell-specific miRNAs that may be useful biomarkers of tissue injury include the myomiRs, miRs-133, -206, -208, and -499, which have shown promise through their ability to identify cardiac injury (Jenike and Halushka 2021). In addition, miRNA biomarkers that indicate the disruption of specific nuclear receptor or regulatory pathways as a result of chemical exposure would be desirable. Studies examining the changes in miRNA–mRNA interactions that are due to environmental exposures will be helpful in determining the mechanistic pathways involved. One such study applied a network approach, integrative Joint Random Forest, to investigate the effect of low-dose environmental chemical exposure on normal mammary gland development in rats (Petralia et al. 2017). The researchers detected miRNAs that regulated

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