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in English words and replicating findings of Ulicheva et al. (2020). However, use of these critical spellings was far lower than would be expected based on the strength of the statistical regularity in English words. Spoken adjectives comprising these word‐final sound sequences are virtually always spelled with ‐ous and ‐ic. Yet, when adult participants with decades of reading experience were presented with these spoken nonwords in adjective contexts, they used these critical spellings only 12% and 50% of the time, respectively. Treiman et al. (2020) argued that “even in some cases in which morphology has a strong influence on the distribution of spellings in the English writing system, it has a fairly weak influence on human spellers.” Further work is needed to understand why this is, and whether similar results are observed in the case of reading behavior.
Conclusions and Emerging Questions
This chapter opened with the observation that research on reading has been dominated by questions regarding phonological processes. For many years, questions regarding morphological processes were seen as niche, perhaps because the major computational models of reading were focused on processing of words with a single morpheme. That period now seems to have passed and morphological analysis is increasingly recognized as a vital part of skilled reading.
The research described in this chapter provides strong evidence that skilled reading involves the analysis of morphemic information. We have a reasonably good understanding of the form of this analysis and its time‐course in the process of visual word recognition. Yet, there are many questions that require further research. One major question is how we acquire morphological knowledge. Emerging research has suggested that general statistical learning processes may be relevant (Lelonkiewicz et al., 2020; Ulicheva et al., 2020), and training experiments have identified some of the factors that influence acquisition of affix knowledge (Tamminen et al., 2015). However, we do not have a good understanding of the specific mechanism that allows readers to begin to represent morphologically structured words in terms of their constituents. It is also puzzling that after many decades of experience with text, readers’ apparent knowledge of morphological regularities is far weaker than the strength of those regularities in the writing system (Treiman et al., 2020). Computational modeling is one approach that may provide traction in answering these questions.
Research is also needed to address cross‐linguistic differences in morphological processing. I have suggested that readers analyse morphological structure because (at least in English) it provides immediate information about meaning: whether a word is an object, property, or act. If morphological structure were only weakly associated with meaning, or required much more sophisticated analysis to uncover, then presumably it would not be such a powerful feature of the reading system. Recent work has suggested that English readers (both children and adults) show stronger morphological effects than French, German, and Italian readers (Mousikou et al., 2020). The authors of this work suggest that morphological regularities compensate for the relatively opaque spelling‐sound relationship in English. However, this difference might also reflect the salience of morphological information in the writing system (Rastle, 2019a, 2019b ). Linguistic analysis together with computational modeling would provide deeper insight into these cross‐linguistic differences.
To conclude, it is interesting to think more widely about the place of morphology in reading. Several chapters in this volume have rightly emphasized that the computation of phonology is a vital part of reading and learning to read (Brysbaert; Castles & Nation; Savage, this volume). Yet, in many cases, what makes the computation of phonology difficult (at least in English) assists the rapid computation of meaning. It might therefore be that the ability to capitalize on morphological information is a critical part of what it means to make the transition from being a novice to a skilled reader.
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