Psalms Through the Centuries, Volume 3. Susan Gillingham
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is Max Stern’s ‘Ha’azinu’, a cantata for contrabass and orchestra on the theme of Moses’ Farewell to the children of Israel: these verses, alongside Deut. 32:29, are used in Part 1 Scene 6, as part of a Hasidic wedding song symbolising the love between God and his people.153
There are also many Christian arrangements. *Byrd’s ‘Sing Joyfully’—probably his last surviving anthem—was composed to be performed at the christening of Mary, daughter of James I, in 1605 (with the play on the Hebrew name ‘Jacob’, in verse 1, and the Greek derivation, ‘James’): the piece has a dance-like quality, ending with a trumpet fanfare.154 Da *Palestrina arranged these verses in Latin (‘Exultate Deo’) for St. Peter’s Rome in the late sixteenth-century. *Mozart, when aged 16, arranged the whole of this psalm as a motet (‘Exultate Jubilate’, or ‘Rejoice, Be Glad’) which was in three movements, for soprano and orchestra (1773). Verses 1–4 were adapted by William *Walton in his ‘Belshazzar’s Feast’, first performed in 1931: they are used in Part 3, as a song of praise by the exiles, and again a dance-like rhythm is used.155 *Howells also wrote a choral setting for this psalm, also titled ‘Exultate Deo’, in 1977. More recently still, James *MacMillan’s Blow the Trumpet in the New Moon had its world première in June 2017 at the Royal Festival Hall: this is a dramatic setting of the first four verses of Psalm 81, taken from the Geneva Bible. It offers a celebratory fanfare for trumpets and trombones, with the choir singing modern Polish music alongside the more typical Celtic folk-derived *melismas: the unexpected ‘limping rhythm’ (long-short-two longs) adds dance-like energy to the hymnic summons to worship at the start of this psalm.
In conclusion, overall—and unusually in these Asaphite psalms—one of the most important aspects of the reception history of Psalm 81, in both Jewish and Christian traditions, is liturgical and musical, bringing to life elements of hope, even in earlier Jewish reception.
Psalm 82: God’s Abode is in Zion (ii)
Despite its more hopeful beginning, Psalm 81 ends with God’s complaint against his people. In the light of this, this is a second complaint by God (here we would assume that God is speaking against the gods of other peoples in verses 2–4 and 6–7); or it is a complaint by the people to God, contrasting with Psalm 81 and here assuming that the psalmist is speaking throughout verses 2–8, charging God in several ways about issues of injustice. It is difficult to know which reading fits best: it is possible to see as many as four speakers in this psalm (vv. 2, 3–4, 5–6, 7) and the use of a prophetic oracle is much less clear than in Psalm 81. Whatever the interpretation, it is clear that verse 8 (‘Rise up, O God, judge the earth…’) is an address by the psalmist to God: much depends on whether we see this as an affirmation of the justice of God, or an accusation that God is hidden and doing little about injustice. In either case, in the context of verse 1, where God takes his place in the heavenly council, this is a psalm which both challenges and affirms monotheism.
The link with Pss. 79:5 and 80:4 is clear in the theme of ‘How Long?’ in verse 2. The interaction between human and divine speech—wherever the boundaries are—has resonances with Psalm 81, and Psalm 82 also anticipates Psalm 83 in its imagined downfall of the wicked: here the wicked seem to be deities (although as we shall see below, this has been much debated), whilst in Psalm 83 they are the enemies of the people (noting the deliberate connection made in the *Septuagint, which for 82:7 and 83:11 uses the same Greek word for ‘prince’: the Hebrew uses two different words). It is the mythical background of this psalm which is most contentious. The myth of a heavenly council, the myth that gods have lands, and the myth of one god rising to prominence are all evident in this one psalm; it may well originate from an early period when the attraction of Canaanite religion was seductive. Later Jewish and Christian reception was thus faced with how to read these traces of polytheism in the psalm.
The *Septuagint, surprisingly, preserves the mythical connotations. For example, it reads the reference to the gods in verse 1b as an ‘assembly of gods’, whilst other Greek versions refer to an ‘assembly of the mighty’. *Qumran, meanwhile, uses the term ‘the holy ones of God’: verses 1–2 are found in 11QMelch2, lines 10–11, which combines Lev. 25:9, 13, Deut. 15:2, Isa. 52:7, 61:1–3 and Dan. 9:25 along with Ps. 7:7–9 to describe in eschatological terms the redemption to be brought about by the heavenly Melchizedek: in the ‘year of grace’ he will execute judgement over these mysterious ‘holy ones of God’, who are perhaps by that time angelic beings.156
Interestingly, the New Testament also does not explicitly deny the mythical and polytheistic associations of this psalm. John 10:34 cites Ps. 82:6 (here calling the Book of Psalms ‘your Law’) and the implication seems to be that those who reject Jesus as God will be judged, by angelic deities, as blasphemers and thus strangers to God. In the light of the Qumran reading, which in effect understands the ‘sons of God’ as angelic judges, acting as God’s agents, it might be that the Johannine use of this psalm might be a way of demonstrating that Jesus is the supreme Divine Judge.
The Church Fathers, influenced by the use of this psalm in John 10, had much to say about its contribution to the doctrine of what later became known as the ‘deification’ of humanity (encapsulated in his De Incarnatione by the fourth-century theologian, *Athanasius of Alexandria: ‘God became man so that we might become God’). For example, the second-century Apologist (or defended of the faith) *Justin Martyr, in Dial. 124, discusses whether Christians are ‘sons of God’ and cites this psalm in full; without criticising its polytheistic stance he reads this as about the disobedience of all humankind, and the judgement on all things, earthly and heavenly, thus negating the (later) idea of ‘deification’. It would appear that Justin used two Greek texts, only one of which was the *Septuagint. So here he reads verses 6–7 as ‘You are gods… you shall die like a man’ as a reference to humanity losing its godlike status through Adam in Eden.157 *Irenaeus cites this psalm over sixty times, and his view of verse 1 is that the threefold use of the word ‘God’ refers to the Father and the Son and Holy Spirit, whilst in verse 6 the phrase ‘gods’ is addressed to humanity: hence ‘you are gods’ applies to humankind as a whole and illustrates a Pauline view of humanity being adopted as divine sons (rather than the Johannine notion of being begotten as children of God).158 *Clement of Alexandria, one of the first theologians to express more explicitly the idea of deification (and in this influenced by Hellenistic and Platonic ideas, for example in Stromata I v. 155.2), uses Ps. 82:6 (‘you are gods’) as an example of humanity losing, in Adam, the gift of immortality to regain it in Christ. Hence Clement reads verses 6 and 7 as an account of the whole of salvation history, from Adam to Christ.159 By contrast, *Tertullian, in Marc. (Book II Ch. XIX and Book I Ch. VII), cites Ps. 82:1 and 6–7, also against the background of John 10:34, and sees that it refers not to humanity but to other beings who are to be judged as ‘non gods’. Only later, for example in *Cyril of Jerusalem’s Catechetical Lectures, is there a re-reading that ‘you are gods’ refers to mere human beings whom only the divine Judge can appraise.160 *Cassiodorus, asserting that the Godhead as Trinity is the only ‘God of gods’, also read the references to the judgement of the gods as about judgement on humans: here too there is no indication of their deification.161
Jewish tradition is of course neither interested in deification nor in the effects of any Trinitarian doctrine; so, arriving at the same issue by a different route, and eradicating all polytheistic references, it reads this psalm as about human rebellion and judgement by God. This might explain the title in the *Targum: ‘A Psalm by Asaph. As for God, his *Shekinah dwells in the assembly of the righteous who are mighty in the Law; he judges among the judges of truth.’ So for verses 6–7 Targum reads: ‘You are like angels … in truth as humans you will die’.162 Here we are not dealing with gods who will die like men, nor with men who will die like the gods; they are, quite simply, ordinary men. This reading dominated rabbinic tradition: the psalm is a general condemnation of all who falsify God’s law.163 *Rashi makes this clear: he reads verse 1 not about a divine assembly but about a judicial body—i.e. about Israel’s law courts over which God