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3.3.3 X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy

       3.4 Diffraction and scattering techniques

       3.4.1 X-ray diffraction (XRD)

       3.4.2 Dynamic light scattering

       3.4.3 Small angle scattering

       3.5 Porosimetry

       3.6 Summary: key lessons for characterisation of nanomaterials

       References

       4 Conventional methods to prepare nanomaterials

       4.1 Top-down and bottom-up methods

       4.2 Top-down methods

       4.3 Bottom-up methods

       4.4 Nucleation and growth theory

       4.4.1 Homogeneous nucleation

       4.4.2 Heterogeneous nucleation

       4.4.3 Growth

       4.5 Conventional bottom-up methods

       4.5.1 Vapour-phase method

       4.5.2 Solution processing

       4.5.3 Spray conversion

       4.5.4 Sol–gel method

       4.6 Emerging bottom-up methods

       4.6.1 Principles and overview

       4.6.2 Soft lithography

       4.6.3 Dip-pen nanolithography

       4.6.4 Layer-by-layer self-assembly

       4.6.5 Solution synthesis of nanoparticles

       4.6.6 Templated synthesis

       4.7 Summary: key lessons about conventional routes to nanomaterials

       References

       Section III From biominerals to green nanomaterials

       5 Green chemistry for nanomaterials

       5.1 Sustainability of nanomaterials production

       5.2 Reasons behind unsustainability

       5.3 Evaluation of sustainability for selected methods

       5.3.1 E-factors for solution methods

       5.3.2 How green is soft lithography?

       5.3.3 Templated synthesis: surely sustainable?

       5.4 Adopting green chemistry for nanomaterials

       5.5 Biological and biochemical terminology and methods

       5.5.1 Molecular biology component

       5.5.2 Molecular biological techniques

       5.6 Summary: key lessons about sustainability nanomaterials production

       References

       6 Biomineralisation: how Nature makes nanomaterials

       6.1 Introduction

       6.2 Properties and function of biomineral types

       6.2.1 Bio-calcium phosphate (hydroxyapatite): mechanical/structural support, motion, cutting/grinding

       6.2.2 Bio-calcium carbonate: protection, sensor, buoyancy

       6.2.3 Bio-silica: mechanical support, transport and protection

       6.2.4 Bio-magnetite: sensing, cutting/grinding, iron storage

       6.3 Mineral formation controlling strategies in biomineralisation

       6.3.1 The universal biomineralisation process

       6.4 Roles and types of organic biological components required for biomineralisation

       6.4.1 Roles of organic biological components

       6.4.2 Types of organic biological components

       6.5 Summary: key lessons from biomineralisation for the green synthesis of nanomaterials

       References

       7 Bioinspired ‘green’ synthesis of nanomaterials

       7.1 From biological to bioinspired synthesis

       7.2 Mechanistic understanding

       7.2.1 Biomineralising biomolecules

       7.2.2 Abiotic peptides and proteins from biopanning

       7.3 An illustration of exploiting the knowledge of nano–bio interactions

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