Privacy in Mobile and Pervasive Computing. Florian Schaub
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When the GDPR finally came into effect in May 2018, its most visible effect was a deluge of email messages that asked people to confirm that they still wanted to be on a mailing list (i.e., giving “unambiguous” consent, as per Article 4) [Hern, 2018, Jones, 2018], as well as a pronounced media backlash questioning both the benefits of the regulation [Lobo, 2018] as well as its (seemingly extraordinarily high) costs [Kottasová, 2018]. Many of the new principles in the GDPR sound simple, but can be challenging to implement in practice (e.g., privacy by design, the right to erasure). We will discuss some of these challenges in Chapter 6. Also, the above-mentioned Council of Europe “Convention for the Protection of Individuals with regard to Automatic Processing of Personal Data” (108/81) [Council of Europe, 1981] has recently been updated [Council of Europe, 2018] and is now being touted as a first step for non-EU countries to receive the coveted status of a “safe third country” (adequacy assessment) [European Commission, 2017] with respect to the new GDPR [Greenleaf, 2018].
Privacy Law and Regulation in Other Countries
Beyond the U.S. and Europe, many countries have adopted data protection or privacy laws [Greenleaf, 2017, Swire and Ahmad, 2012]. An increasing number of countries have been adopting comprehensive data protection laws, which not just follow the Europan model, but are often based on EU Directive 95/46/EC or the GDPR. For instance, the data protection laws of Switzerland, Russia, and Turkey are similar to the EU Directive. Mexico’s 2010 Federal Law on the Protection of Personal Data Held by Private Entities also follows a comprehensive approach similar to the EU Directive, in particular with respect to data subjects’ rights, obligations of data controllers and processors, and international data transfer requirements. The Mexican law further incorporates the Habeas Data concept common in Latin American legal regimes [Swire and Ahmad, 2012]. Habeas Data refers to the constitutional right that citizens “may have the data” that is stored about them, i.e., they have the right to pose habeas data requests to entities to learn whether and what information is stored about them and request correction. The Mexican law requires data controllers to designate a contact for such requests and process them in a timely manner. The GDPR’s data portability right (Art. 20, GDPR) provides a similar right for data subjects and obligations for data controllers. In 2018, Brazil adopted the General Data Privacy Law (LGPD), which goes into effect in 2020. The LGPD closely mirrors the GDPR in its key provisions.
Canada also employs a comprehensive data protection approach. PIPEDA, the Personal Information Protection and Electronic Documents Act, regulates data protection for the private sector in Canada. A key difference between the GDPR and PIPEDA is that under PIPEDA individual informed consent is the only basis for lawful data collection, processing, and sharing, with limited exceptions [Banks, 2017].
Australia employs a co-regulatory model. Australia’s Federal Privacy Act defines National Privacy Principles for government agencies and the private sector. Industries then define self-regulatory codes that reflect the National Privacy Principles, with oversight by the Australian National Privacy Commissioner.
The Privacy Framework of the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) aims to promote interoperability of privacy regimes across the 21 APEC countries. In contrast to Europe’s GDPR, the APEC Privacy Framework [APEC, 2017] is not a law but rather defines nine privacy principles, based on the OECD privacy guidelines, APEC countries can choose to subscribe to. The Framework further defines Cross-Border Privacy Rules (CBPR) as a code of conduct to enable cross-border data transfers among countries committing to the CBPR. The CBPR requires a local accountability agent (i.e., a governmental institution) that certifies organization’s CBPR compliance. As of 2018, six APEC countries are participating in CBPR, namely the U.S., Japan, Mexico, Canada, South Korea, and Singapore. In addition to the CBPR, the APEC Cross-border Privacy Enforcement Agreement (CPEA) facilitates cooperation and information sharing among APEC countries’ privacy enforcement authorities.
2.2 MOTIVATING PRIVACY
When the UK government in 1994 tried to rally support for its plans to significantly expand CCTV surveillance in Britain, it coined the slogan “If you’ve got nothing to hide, you’ve got nothing to fear” [Rosen, 2001]—a slogan that has been a staple in counter-privacy arguments ever since. What is so bad of having less privacy in today’s day and age, unless you are a terrorist, criminal, or scoundrel? Surely, people in Britain, with its over 6 million surveillance cameras (one for every 11 people) [Barrett, 2013] seem to be no worse off than, say, their fellow European neighbors in France or Germany, which both have nowhere near that many cameras.16 Would those who maintain an active Facebook page say they are worse off than those who only use email, text messages, or, say, written letters, to communicate with friends and family? Why not let Google monitor all Web searches and emails sent and received, so that it can provide better search results, a cleaner inbox, and more relevant targeted advertising, rather than the random spam that usually makes it into one’s inbox? Who would not want police and other national security institutions have access to our call records and search history in order to prevent terrorists and child molesters from planning and conducting their heinous crimes?
One might assume that making the case for privacy should be easy. Privacy is one of the leading consumer concerns on the Internet, dominating survey responses for more than 20 years now (e.g., Westin’s privacy surveys between 1990 and 2003 [Kumaraguru and Cranor, 2005], the 1999 IBM Multi-National Consumer Privacy Survey [IBM Global Services, 1999], or recent consumer reports from KPMG [2016] or International Data Corporation (IDC) [2017]). Everybody seems to want privacy. However, when separating preferences from actual behavior [Berendt et al., 2005, Spiekermann et al., 2001], most people in their everyday life seem to care much less about privacy than surveys indicate—something often called the “privacy paradox” [Norberg et al., 2007]. Facebook, with its long history of privacy-related issues [Parakilas, 2017], is still growing significantly every year, boasting over 2.23 billion “active monthly users”17 at the end of June 2018 [Facebook, Inc., 2018]. Back in 2013, with only about half that many active users (1.2 billion) [Facebook, Inc., 2018], Facebook users already shared almost 3.3 million pieces of content (images, posts, links) per minute [Facebook, Inc., 2013]. Within the same 60 s, Google serves an estimated 3.6 million search queries [James, 2017], each feeding into the profile of one of its over 1+ billion unique users18 in order to better integrate targeted advertising into their search results, Gmail inboxes, and YouTube videos. Of course, more privacy-friendly alternatives exist and they do see increasing users. For example, a service like the anonymous search engine DuckDuckGo saw its traffic double within days19 after Edward Snowden revealed the extent to which many Internet companies, including Google, were sharing data with the U.S. government. However, DuckDuckGo’s share of overall searches remains minuscule. Even though its share had been on the rise ever since the Snowden leaks of June 2013, its current20 11 million queries a day (roughly seven times its pre-Snowden traffic) are barely more than 0.3%21 of Google’s query traffic.
Why are not more people using a privacy-friendly search engine like DuckDuckGo? Does this mean people do not care about privacy? Several reasons come to mind. First, not many people may have heard about DuckDuckGo. Second, “traditional” search engines might simply provide superior value over their privacy-friendly competitors. Or maybe people simply think that they do. Given that the apparent cost of the services is the same (no direct charge to the consumer), the fact that one offers more relevant results than the other may be enough to make people not want to switch. Third, and maybe most important: indirect costs like a loss of privacy are notoriously hard to assess [Solove, 2013]. What could possibly happen if Yahoo, Microsoft, or Google know what one is searching? What is so bad about posting holiday pictures on Facebook or Instagram? Why would chatting through Signal22 be any better than through WhatsApp?23 Consider the following cases.
• In 2009, U.S. Army veteran turned stand-up comedian Joe Lipari had a bad customer experience in his local Apple store [Glass, 2010]. Maybe unwisely, Joe went home and took out his anger via a Facebook posting that quoted a line from the movie he started watching—Fight Club (based on the 1996 book by Palahniuk [1996]): “And this button-down, Oxford-cloth psycho might just snap, and then stalk from office to office