Japan's Total Empire. Louise Young
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moreover, because this book concentrates on the period between 1931 and 1945, a small, though critical, slice of time in the larger history of Japan in Manchuria. Narrowing the field of study, we now move into this different world, focusing on Japan in 1931—a nation swept up in war fever.
1. For Japanese relations with Asia during the Tokugawa period, see Ronald Toby, State and Diplomacy in Early Modern Japan: Asia in the Development of the Tokugawa Bakufu (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1984), and Marius Jansen, China in the Tokugawa World (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1992).
2. For a useful essay summarizing the Meiji discourse on Asia, see Marlene J. Mayo, ‘Attitudes toward Asia and the Beginnings of Japanese Empire,’ in Grant K. Goodman, comp., Imperial Japan and Asia: A Reassessment (New York: East Asian Institute, Columbia University, 1967), pp. 6-30. For a compilation of different accounts of the origins of Meiji imperialism see Marlene J. Mayo, comp., The Emergence of Imperial Japan: Self-defense or Calculated Aggression? (Lexington, Mass.: D. C. Heath, 1970).
3. The strategic concerns of late Meiji imperialism are discussed in James B. Crowley, “From Closed Door to Empire: The Formation of the Meiji Military Establishment,” in Bernard S. Silberman and H. D. Harootunian, eds., Modern Japanese Leadership (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1966), pp. 261–285.
4. On Meiji imperialism in Korea, see Hilary Conroy, The Japanese Seizure of Korea, 1868–1910: A Study of Realism and Idealism in International Relations (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1960), and Duus, Abacus and Sword.
5. On Japanese imperialism in Manchuria before 1931, see Ken'ichiro Hirano, “The Japanese in Manchuria, 1906–1931: A Study of the Historical Background of Manchukuo,” Ph.D. dissertation, Harvard University, 1983; Herbert P. Bix, “Japanese Imperialism and Manchuria, 1890–1931,” Ph.D. dissertation, Harvard University, 1972; and Herbert P. Bix, “Japanese Imperialism and the Manchurian Economy, 1900–1931,” China Quarterly 51 (July-September 1972), pp. 425–443.
6. For a definitive treatment of the treaty port system, see John K. Fairbank, Trade and Diplomacy on the China Coast: The Opening of the Treaty Ports, 1842-1954, 2 vols. (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1953).
7. For economic concerns see Peter Duus, “Economic Dimensions of Meiji Imperialism: The Case of Korea, 1895-1910,” in Ramon H. Myers and Mark R. Peattie, eds., The Japanese Colonial Empire, 1895-1945 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1984), pp. 128-171; and William D. Wray, “Japan's Big-Three Service Enterprises in China, 1896-1936” in Peter Duus, Ramon H. Myers, and Mark R. Peattie, eds., The Japanese Informal Empire in China, 1895-1937 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1989), pp. 31-64.
8. On Great Power rivalries in China in the first two decades of the twentieth century, see Ian H. Nish, The Anglo-Japanese Alliance: The Diplomacy of Two Island Empires 1894–1907 (London; Athlone Press, 1966); Ian H. Nish, Alliance in Decline: A Study in Anglo-Japanese Relations 1908–23 (London: Athlone Press, 1972); Peter Lowe, Great Britain and Japan, 1911–1915: A Study of British Far Eastern Policy (London: Macmillan, 1969); and Madeleine Chi, China Diplomacy, 1914–1918 (Cambridge: East Asian Research Center, Harvard University, 1970).
9. The best summary treatment of Japanese colonialism is found in three essays by Mark R. Peattie: ‘The Japanese Colonial Empire, 1895–1945” in Peter Duus, ed., The Twentieth Century, vol. 6 of The Cambridge History of Japan (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1988), pp. 217–270; “Introduction,” in Ramon H. Myers and Mark R. Peattie, eds., The Japanese Colonial Empire, 1895–1945 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1984), pp. 3–52; and “Japanese Attitudes toward Colonialism, 1895–1945,” in Ramon H. Myers and Mark R. Peattie, eds., The Japanese Colonial Empire, 1895–1945 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1984), pp. 80–127.
10. Ching-chih Chen, “Police and Community Control Systems in the Empire,” in Ramon H. Myers and Mark R. Peattie, eds., The Japanese Colonial Empire, 1895–1945 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1984), pp. 213–239.
11. On the early history of the Kwantung Army see Shimada Toshihiko, Kantgun: zaiMan rikugun no dokus (Ch
12. The most thorough treatment of the relationship between Zhang Zuolin (Chang Tso-lin) and the Japanese is found in Gavan McCormack, Chang Tso-lin in Northeast China, 1911–1928: China, Japan, and the Manchurian Idea (Stanford: Stanford Universitv Press, 1977).
13. McCormack, pp. 179–124.
14. On the early history of Mantetsu, see Ramon H. Myers, “Japanese Imperialism in Manchuria: The South Manchurian Railway Company, 1906–1933,” in Peter Duus, Ramon H. Myers, and Mark R. Peattie, eds., The Japanese Informal Empire in China, 1895–1937 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1989), pp. 101–132; Manshikai, Mansh kaihatsu yonjnenshi, vol. 1 (Mansh
15. Nakamura Seishi, “Hyakusha rankingu no hensen,” Ch kron keiei mondai (special issue, Fall 1977); Kigy tkei sran (T
16. Japanese tax revenue was 175 million yen in 1920, 895 in 1925, and 835 in 1930: And
17. Myers, “Japanese Imperialism,” p. 111.
18. Bix, “Japanese Imperialism and the Manchurian Economy,” pp. 425-443; McCormack, p. 7.
19. Coox, Nomonhan, vol. 1, p. 6.
20. Mobilization and casualty figures from Inoue Kiyoshi, Nikon teikokushugi no keisei (Iwanami shoten, 1968), pp. 227-239, and Iguchi Kazuki, “Nisshin, Nichiro sens