A Companion to Global Gender History. Группа авторов
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of pleasure or the dangers of transgression, but historically they have followed a master script dictated by the gender arrangements of society. It may be that emerging transgender and gender‐fluid identities may eventually destabilize dominant gender hierarchies, but that moment has not yet arrived. LGBTQ (lesbian, gay, bisexual, trans, and queer/questioning) people are still “minorities.”
BIBLIOGRAPHY AND FURTHER READING
1 Allen, Peter Lewis (2000) The Wages of Sin: Sex and Disease, Past and Present. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
2 Bennet, Paula and Rosario, Vernon, eds. (1995) Solitary Pleasures. London: Routledge.
3 Bleys, Rudi C. (1995) The Geography of Perversion: Male to Male Sexual Behavior Outside the West and the Western Ethnographic Imagination. New York: New York University Press.
4 Brown, Peter (1988) The Body and Society: Men, Women and Sexual Renunciation in Early Christianity. New York: Columbia University Press.
5 Cadden, Joan (1993) Meanings of Sex Difference in the Middle Ages. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
6 Chauncey, George (1994) Gay New York: Gender, Urban Culture, and the Making of the Gay Male World. New York: Basic Books.
7 Clark, Adele (1998) Disciplining Reproduction: Modernity, American Life Sciences and the Problem of Sex. Berkeley, CA.: University of California Press.
8 Clark, Anna (2008) Desire: A History of European Sexuality. London: Routledge.
9 Dikötter, Frank (1995) Sex, Culture and Modernity in China. London: Hurst.
10 Eder, Franz, Hall, Lesley, and Hekma, Gerd, eds. (1998) Sexual Cultures in Europe. Manchester: Manchester University Press.
11 Epstein, Steven (1996) Impure Science: AIDS, Activism, and the Politics of Knowledge. Berkeley, CA.: University of California Press.
12 Fausto‐Sterling, Anne (2000) Sexing the Body: Gender, Politics and the Construction of Sexuality. New York: Basic Books.
13 Foucault, Michel (1980) The History of Sexuality. Introduction, trans. Robert Hurley. New York: Vintage.
14 Freud, Sigmund (1953) Collected Papers. 4 vols., London: Hogarth Press.
15 Frühstück, Sabine (2003) Colonizing Sex: Sexology and Social Control in Modern Japan. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
16 Furth, Charlotte (1999) A Flourishing Yin: Gender in China’s Medical History, 960–1665. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
17 Gilman, Sander (1985) Difference and Pathology: Stereotypes of Sexuality, Race and Madness. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
18 Hacking, Ian (1995) Rewriting the Soul: Multiple Personality and the Sciences of Memory. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
19 Halperin, David (1990) One Hundred Years of Homosexuality. London: Routledge.
20 Herdt, Gilbert, ed. (1994) Third Sex, Third Gender: Beyond Sexual Dimorphism in Culture and History. New York: Zone Books.
21 Herzog, Dagmar (2011) Sexuality in Europe: A Twentieth‐Century History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
22 Hull, Isabel (1996) Sexuality, the State and Civil Society in Germany, 1700–1815. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
23 Jones, James H. (1997) Alfred C. Kinsey: A Public/Private Life. New York: Norton.
24 Laqueur, Thomas (1990) Making Sex: Body and Gender from the Greeks to Freud. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
25 McLaren, Angus (1990) A History of Contraception from Antiquity to the Present Day. Oxford: Blackwell.
26 McLaren, Angus (1999) Twentieth Century Sexuality. London: Blackwell.
27 Mason, Michael (1994) The Making of Victorian Sexuality. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
28 Mosse, George L. (1996) The Image of Man: The Creation of Modern Masculinity. New York: Oxford University Press.
29 Noyes, John K. (1997) The Mastery of Submission: Invention of Masochism. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
30 Nye, Robert A., ed. (1999) Sexuality. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
31 Oosterhuis, Harry (2000) Stepchildren of Nature: Krafft‐Ebing, Psychiatry and the Making of Sexual Identity. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
32 Oudshoorn, Nelly (1994) Beyond the Natural Body: An Archeology of Sex Hormones. New York: Routledge.
33 Peakman, Julie (2014) A Cultural History of Sexuality. London: Bloomsbury.
34 Phillips Kim M. and Reay, Barry (2011) Sex Before Sexuality: A Premodern History. Cambridge: Polity.
35 Porter, Roy and Teich, Mikulas, eds. (1994) Sexual Knowledge and Sexual Science: The History of Attitudes to Sexuality. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
36 Stoler, Ann Laura (1995) Race and the Education of Desire: Foucault’s History of Sexuality and the Colonial Order of Things. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.
37 Stryker, Susan, (2008) Transgender History. Berkeley, CA: Seal Press.
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39 Watkins, Elizabeth Siegel (1998) On the Pill: A Social History of the Oral Contraceptive, 1950–70. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.
40 Weeks, Jeffrey (1986) Sexuality. London: Routledge.
Chapter Two Gender and Labor in World History
Laura Levine Frader1
Men’s and women’s relations in work as well as the nature of their work have varied enormously over time and geography. But perhaps the most fundamental characteristic of human labor – one that has crossed both temporal and geographical boundaries – has been the fact that it has virtually always been marked by gender, the social and historical meanings of sexual difference, and the power relations that they have produced. Men and women have engaged in different forms of work much of the time. However, these differences were not inscribed from the beginnings of human life on the planet; they emerged through historical developments and cultural change and they almost always led to gender stratification, inequality, and power differences in society overall.
This chapter reviews the historical influence of gender on labor and looks particularly at the ways that women’s and men’s work has been valued differently over time, from the earliest human societies to the age of globalization. As feminist scholars have pointed out, in industrial and post‐industrial societies, much of women’s work has not been recognized because it tended to be hidden from public view. Thus, the work that women have performed at home, providing food, carrying water, and caring for children and the elderly, has often been excluded from the economic calculus of what counts as “work,” even though it has considerable economic value. Overall, as wage labor and capitalist market relations developed historically, gender divisions became more sharply defined. Even though capitalism opened new opportunities for women, it often created new inequalities. Gender inequalities remain up to the present and show no sign of disappearing any time soon, even if they are now less acute in more parts of the globe than at any time in history.
Early Human Societies and the Emergence of Gender Divisions
Although scholars have debated the origins of women’s subordination within the gender division of labor, they have discovered that gender divisions appeared long before modern capitalism came on the scene (Hartmann, 1976, 1979). But the nature of those gender divisions in early hominoid societies has been subject to debate. Anthropologists long believed that men provided the bulk of the food supply by aggressively hunting big game in hunter‐gatherer societies, whereas women primarily gathered