The Concise Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics. Carol A. Chapelle
Читать онлайн книгу.
A.‐M. (1998). Multidimensional identification. In T. M. Singelis (Ed.), Teaching about culture, ethnicity & diversity: Exercises and planned activities (pp. 141–5). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Online Resources
1 Cultural Intelligence Scale. (n.d.). What is CQ? Retrieved March 28, 2019 from https://culturalq.com/
2 Intercultural Development Inventory. (n.d.). The roadmap to intercultural competence using the IDI. Retrieved March 28, 2019 from https://idiinventory.com/
Note
1 Based in part on R. M. Paige and E. S. Madden (2012). Assessment of cultural knowledge. In C. A. Chapelle (Ed.), The Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics. John Wiley & Sons Inc., with permission.
Assessment of Integrated Skills
LIA PLAKANS
Assessment of integrated skills refers to the use of test tasks that combine two or more language skills to simulate authentic language‐use situations. In such assessment, task demands aim to overlap and synthesize combinations of reading, writing, listening, and speaking. Although possibly more common in classroom assessments, such tasks are now included in larger‐scale tests, for example:
1 Internet‐Based Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL iBT) from the Educational Testing Service is employed as a measure of English‐language use and comprehension in university classroom contexts for the purpose of admission into English‐speaking higher education programs. This test includes tasks that integrate writing with reading and listening as well as speaking tasks that include reading and listening.
2 Diplôme approfondi de langue française (DALF), managed by the Centre international d'études pédagogiques, is used as a French‐language proficiency measure for university study and employment. The high proficiency level assessment integrates multiple skills—reading, writing, listening, and speaking—with tasks such as summarization, discussion, and argumentation.
3 The College Board's Advanced Placement (AP) Spanish Examination in the United States is given to determine if college foreign‐language credit in Spanish can be granted to students completing high school. Writing tasks include an integrated essay based on reading two texts and listening to an audio file.
The view of skills as integrated contrasts with the long‐standing conceptualization of language as four skills, plus grammar and vocabulary, which has been a mainstay in language testing for some time (Carroll, 1961). The current trend of integrated skills assessment is focused on simulating the processes and performances demanded by academic contexts, where writing or speaking is tied to content that students have listened to or read. Thus, it has arisen from a practical view of language tests designed to readily provide scores that can be interpreted as a language ability needed to complete academic work. With this impetus, subsequent research sought to further define the construct of what this ability is and find evidence that integrated tasks tap into this construct. The outcome thus far, suggests that integrated assessment tasks tap into performance‐based skills of speaking or writing, general language knowledge of vocabulary and comprehension (Sawaki, Quinlan, & Lee, 2013), and ability to synthesize content and skills through discourse synthesis. Less certain is how the scores from these tasks can provide inferences about listening or reading, which is clearly required in the process of completing the tasks (Zhu, Li, Yu, Cheong, & Liao, 2016). Thus, while the depth and breadth of research on integrated skills tasks has grown significantly in the past decade, scholars express the need to continue the search to better define these tasks (Knoch & Sitajalabhorn, 2013), develop new innovative approaches to them (Plakans, Liao, & Wang, 2018), and establish reliable scoring that reflects the intended integrated language ability (Gebril, 2010; Gebril & Plakans, 2014).
Test Tasks
In most cases, integrated assessment tasks are performance based, leading to writing or speaking, rather than completion of selected response items such as multiple‐choice questions. The integration of skills in assessment may occur during the process of composing the constructed response; for example, in a speaking task that includes summarization, the test taker is required to use the cognitive processes involved in both reading and speaking. Integrated tasks may also require that the final product from the task include integration; for example, the TOEFL task requires that content from listening and reading texts be combined in the written summary.
Integrated tasks have been categorized into at least three types: text or content‐responsible, stimulus‐related, and thematically linked. The most common type is text or content‐responsible (Leki & Carson, 1997; Knoch & Sitajalabhorn, 2013), which requires the test taker to write or speak about the content of texts. Examples might include an oral summarization task or a persuasive essay that requires test takers to use ideas from source texts for supporting evidence. The prompt below illustrates such a task, which is referred to as a “content‐responsible” task.
Directions: Read the following passage that gives an opinion about technology. Then explain the writer's main point and why you agree or disagree with it.
Computer Madness
Technology has not fulfilled the promises made when computers were first adapted for personal use. They have made life more complicated and increased the amount of work we do, rather than simplify life or minimize workloads. In one day, I must respond to at least 50 emails. Sometimes these emails are things that would not even warrant a phone call. Instead of meeting face‐to‐face, my meetings are online involving video cameras, microphone, etc. Time is spent in setting up the technology rather than in making important decisions. I am really starting to wonder if there is any advantage to having modern technology. Where are the benefits?
These tasks are common in assessment for academic purposes as well as in content‐based instruction where language is used as a medium for learning, for example in language‐immersion programs or sheltered instruction. Such assessment requires that test takers comprehend the reading and incorporate it into their response. If the answer could be completed without reading the text, then it is considered a stimulus‐based test task.
A stimulus task asks test takers to read or listen to a text but does not require that the content be reflected in their performance. The input texts or visuals, such as lists, charts, or graphs, serve as idea generators or background information (Leki & Carson, 1997). The example below presents a stimulus task given at the end of an ESL course.
Directions: Read the following pieces of advice about successful study skills.
General suggestions for study skills
Write down due dates for all assignments on a calendar.
Determine weekly goals for studying and focus on meeting them.
Study in a room where you have complete silence and can concentrate.
At the end of each study session, plan what to do for your next session.
Reward yourself for working hard.
Imagine you are writing to a classmate who will take this class in the future. What other study skills will you suggest that are specific for this class? What helped you succeed? Provide three suggestions with some explanation and an example for each. Write approximately 600–700 words on this topic; write essay style, not just listing. Your response will be evaluated on the following: organization, development, clarity, and grammatical accuracy.
These two task types, content‐responsible and stimulus‐based, differ in what they require test takers to do and how the resulting performance is rated. A stimulus‐based task integrates skills