Political Science For Dummies. Marcus A. Stadelmann
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People will join together to push for their own interests and for government benefits. These interests can be economic, professional, ideological, environmental, or even religious. All these diverse groups will now compete for public benefits, ensuring that public policy will benefit not only a few people but a majority in the country. Political power is therefore held by interest groups, representing the people. As soon as one group of citizens feel disadvantaged, they’ll begin to organize and compete for benefits. Suddenly, many interest groups are competing for political benefits and hopefully balancing each other out overall. Pluralism assumes that everybody will get a little bit from policymakers, but nobody will get everything he asks for. This balance makes every interest group accept lawmakers’ policy decisions without complaining or, more importantly, without taking action against policymakers.Source: James Madison/Alamystock PhotoFIGURE 1-2: James Madison is the developer of pluralism.
Corporatism: Corporatism also deals with interest groups. However, there are not tens of thousands as in the U.S., but a lot less. There may be only three. These groups are large and powerful and directly deal with the government when it comes to policy making. Therefore, a few but very powerful interest groups hold power in a society. The political scientist needs to study these to find out who holds power in a society. Examples of corporatist countries include Germany, Austria, and most of Scandinavia.
Elite theory: Elite theory, as created by the great Italian social scientists Vilfredo Pareto and Gaetano Mosca, states that every society has an elite that holds political power. That elite differs from society to society. In some societies, it’s blood based, meaning you have to be born into it. A monarch with a ruling aristocracy comes to mind. In other places, wealth puts you into the elite. The more money you have, the more influential you’ll be. This is often the case in capitalist countries like the U.S. or Great Britain. Another determinant of power is religion; Iran is governed by a religious elite. Membership in organizations such as an elite political party, for example, the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, or the military can put someone in the elite. A military dictatorship such as found in Chile from 1973 until 1990 under General Pinochet is an example. In a nutshell, elite theory states that in every society an elite holds political power.
Marxism: A Marxist believes that whoever holds economic power also holds political power. In other words, control of the economy equals control of government. In a capitalist society, the economy is controlled by the upper and middle classes, and therefore they control government. In a feudal society, the king and his aristocracy control the economy and therefore government (for a detailed discussion of Marxism, see Chapter 17).
Checking on sources of political power
Two models explain where political power comes from. First is the percolation-up model. It assumes that power rests with the citizens of a country. The citizens in turn elect leaders and give them political power to run the country on their behalf. If the citizens are satisfied with their leaders, they can reelect them. On the other hand, if they’re dissatisfied, they can replace them. An example is a representative democracy.
The second model assumes the exact opposite. It’s called a drip-down model. Here, ultimate power doesn’t rest with the citizens but with the leadership of a country. For example, in authoritarian and totalitarian systems, the leader has ultimate power and makes policy for the country. The citizens have no input and can’t hold the leadership accountable. Historically, this type of power model was the most widespread of the two. Examples include the monarchies of the past, totalitarian systems such as the Soviet Union, and more modern dictatorships such as Belarus or Iran.
Searching for Sources of Legitimacy
A successful government has to have its population recognize its legitimacy. If the population recognizes its government as legitimate, it will follow its leaders’ decisions, and no force needs to be used when implementing policies. For example, if a police officer pulls you over for speeding, you recognize his powers of doing so. In other words, you see his use of power as legitimate and will abide by it. Governments can acquire legitimacy in various ways, as I discuss in the following sections.
Political structures
Certain political structures such as democracy can be helpful when it comes to legitimacy. If a government is chosen through democratic elections, it acquires legitimacy. The voters perceive this government to be based on popular will, and they’re more likely to follow its lead.
Results
A second source of legitimacy are results. If a government is successfully providing its population with what it needs and desires, its legitimacy increases. For example, if a government is successful with its economic policies, providing its people with economic security, its legitimacy increases. The same will happen if a successful war is fought or the country is able to maintain security for its population. However, if a government fails to provide what people need or want, the population will turn against it. It will then lose legitimacy.
History
History matters when it comes to legitimacy. For example, if a regime has lasted for centuries, as the U.S. or the British governments have, the population is used to it, has a lot of pride in the system, and is more likely to find it legitimate.
Habit
Habit can make a difference when it comes to legitimacy. In any society, people will become socialized to find a government legitimate. The acquisition of political beliefs and values is referred to as political socialization and is usually accomplished by the family and parts of government, such as the educational structures (political socialization is discussed in more detail in Chapter 3). If children have been successfully socialized, they will abide by government rules because they believe that their government is legitimate. Later in life, they pass this habit on to their children. Governments that have been around for a long time have citizens who habitually consider it legitimate.
International recognition
International recognition makes a difference. If a government is recognized by the rest of the world, especially great powers such as the United States and China, as legitimate, its population is less likely to turn against it. Furthermore, legitimate governments can expect international aid in times of an economic or political crisis, which in turn will help maintain legitimacy among its people. For example, a loan by the International Monetary Fund (see Chapter 13) can help governments continue providing basic economic need to their populations. Only countries considered legitimate by the United Nations or other international organizations qualify for this kind of aid. In a nutshell, international legitimacy provides domestic legitimacy.
Religion
Religion can be a powerful source of legitimacy. If a government can tie its rule to a predominate religion, it automatically receives legitimacy. During the middle ages, most kings were absolute rulers, holding all political power in their countries. They tied their rule to religion, claiming that they had received the divine right to rule from God. God had installed them onto their throne, and any kind of insubordination or worse move against their authoritarian rule would be a move against God. Today,