Introduction to Abnormal Child and Adolescent Psychology. Robert Weis
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caregiver. Infants must expect their caregivers to be sensitive and responsive to their physical, social, and emotional needs and to see themselves as worthy of receiving this care and attention from others. A primary developmental task of adolescence is to establish a sense of identity. Adolescents must develop a coherent sense of self that links childhood experiences with their goals for adulthood. People usually accomplish this task by trying out different social roles during their teenage years (Table 2.1).
Developmental psychopathologists use the term developmental pathway to describe the course or trajectory of children’s development (Masten & Kalstabakken, 2019). Developmental tasks present forks in this pathway. The child can either successfully master the developmental task or have problems with its successful resolution. Mastery of developmental tasks leads to competence, placing children on course for optimal development. However, failure to master early developmental tasks can interfere with the development of later skills and abilities.
Table 2.1
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For example, infants who establish a sense of basic trust in caregivers may have greater ability to make and keep friends in later childhood. However, failure to establish a sense of trust in caregivers during infancy may interfere with children’s abilities to develop close peer relationships later in childhood (Handley, Russotti, Rogosch, & Cicchetti, 2020). Similarly, young children who learn to regulate their behavior and emotions may be able to pay attention in school and cope with minor setbacks and disputes with their classmates. However, young children who continue to tantrum or act aggressively when they do not get their way may be ostracized by their peers (Beauchaine & Cicchetti, 2020). Consider Carter, a boy heading down a problematic developmental pathway.
We can also think of development as analogous to a building. Our genetic endowment might form the foundation of the building, providing us with our physical attributes, raw neurobiological potentials, and behavioral predispositions. The ground floor might consist of early environmental experiences, such as our prenatal surroundings or the conditions of our gestation and delivery. Subsequent floors might consist of postnatal experiences, such as our nutrition and health care, the relationships we develop with our parents and other caregivers, the quality of our education, and the friends we make in school. The integrity of the upper levels of our “building” is partially determined by the strength of the lower levels. For example, problems with the foundation will place additional challenges on the formation of higher levels. However, especially well-developed higher levels can partially compensate for difficulties in the foundation.
The building does not exist in a vacuum, however. The context in which the structure is created is also important. Just as temperature, wind, and rain can affect the construction of a building, so, too, can the child’s social–cultural climate affect his development. Social and cultural conditions can promote the child’s psychological integrity: high-quality schools, safe neighborhoods, and communities that protect and value children and families. Other social and cultural factors, such as exposure to poverty and crime, can compromise child development.
Continuity vs. Change
Developmental psychopathologists are also interested in predicting the course of development. Some psychological problems tend to be developmentally transient; they rarely persist into adolescence or adulthood. For example, elimination disorders (e.g., bed-wetting and soiling) tend to exist only during early childhood.
Other disorders show homotypic continuity—that is, they persist from childhood to adolescence or adulthood relatively unchanged. For example, young children with intellectual disabilities or autism will likely continue to experience these conditions as adults. Although the severity of these problems may decrease over time, these children will likely continue to experience problems with cognitive or social functioning, respectively (Maughan & Rutter, 2010).
Most childhood disorders, however, show heterotypic continuity—that is, children’s symptoms change over time, but their underlying pattern of behavior remains the same. To understand heterotypic continuity, consider Ben, a 6-year-old boy diagnosed with ADHD. Like most young boys with ADHD, Ben’s most salient problem is hyperactivity; he frequently leaves his seat during class, talks with his neighbors, and fidgets with his clothes and belongings. By middle school, however, Ben shows more problems with inattention than hyperactivity. He has difficulty staying focused during class, remembering to complete his homework, and ignoring distractions during exams. As a young adult, Ben continues to experience underlying symptoms of ADHD, but he is most bothered by problems with organization, planning, and prioritizing activities at home and at work. Although Ben’s most immediate symptoms have changed, his underlying problems with attention and inhibition have persisted over time (Barkley, 2016).
Case Study: Developmental Pathways
A Pathway to Trouble
Carter was a 13-year-old boy who was referred to the psychologist at his school because of fighting. Although Carter’s most immediate problem was getting into fights with other boys at lunch and after school, the psychologist knew that Carter’s problems began much earlier. As a preschooler, Carter was physically abused by his mother’s live-in boyfriend. Like many children who experience maltreatment, Carter developed problems trusting adults—especially men. He was reluctant to develop close emotional ties with others or to rely on others when he was sad, scared, or in need of comfort and reassurance. Instead, Carter became mistrustful of others and often expected others to be angry or hurtful toward him. These early experiences placed him on a developmental path strewn with many obstacles toward a healthy view of himself and others.
Carter’s early experience of maltreatment also taught him that physical aggression can be an effective, short-term strategy for expressing anger and solving interpersonal problems. Instead of learning to avoid arguments or to regulate his emotions, Carter tended to solve disputes by yelling, pushing, or punching. These aggressive actions interfered with his ability to develop more adaptive, prosocial problem-solving strategies and led him further along a path to long-term problems.
Now in middle school, Carter has few friends and is actively disliked by most of his peers. Because of his social rejection, Carter spends time with other peer-rejected youths who introduce him to more serious, disruptive behavior: truancy, vandalism, and alcohol use. Carter is following a path blazed by many youths who show conduct problems and antisocial behavior in adolescence.
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Luckily, it is not too late for Carter. His school psychologist might help him find ways to reconnect with prosocial peers. Maybe Carter can join a sports team or after-school club? The psychologist might also be able to teach Carter new strategies to regulate his emotions and solve social problems so that he does not have to rely on fighting. Most importantly, perhaps the psychologist’s actions and empathy can convince Carter to trust other adults. Interventions like these can help Carter find a new path to adulthood that is characterized by behavioral, social, and emotional competence.
Another example of heterotypic continuity can be seen in Emma, an extremely shy preschooler. Approximately 15% of infants inherit a temperament that predisposes them to become shy and inhibited when placed in unfamiliar situations (Fox, Snidman, Haas, Degnan, & Kagan, 2015). Emma, who inherited this tendency, developed extreme anxiety when separated from her mother. She would cry, tantrum, and become physically ill when her mother would leave her at preschool. Although Emma’s separation anxiety gradually declined, she began experiencing problems with chronic worrying in middle school. Now, as a young adult, Emma continues to experience problems with both anxiety and depression. Although Emma’s symptoms have changed over time, her pattern of underlying emotional distress has persisted into adulthood.