America on Film. Sean Griffin
Читать онлайн книгу.
increasingly powerful streaming service providers such as Netflix and Amazon, who now also produce their own content. AT&T acquired Time Warner in 2018. That same year, a bidding war erupted between Disney and Comcast (parent company of NBC‐Universal, and the largest cable provider in the US) over the purchase of 21st Century Fox, which Disney won.
Such convergence and conglomeration are part of the larger trend towards globalization, which began to grow during the 1990s as government policies, economies, and cultures began to extend beyond traditional national boundaries. The increased international availability of media texts and social communication via new technologies enhanced a greater global awareness. The establishment of the European Union, NAFTA (North American Free Trade Agreement), and other multinational pacts and trade discussions suggested the desire or need to shift from traditional modes of identity into the notion of the “global citizen.” Importantly, such efforts often included work to extend rights to women, LGBTQ communities, and other minoritized groups across the world, as well as standardizing labor practices and environmental regulations.
At the same time, though, resistance to globalization grew in various ways. Within the media industries, for example, Hollywood’s access to new global markets (such as China and India) was mitigated by the rise in international media piracy (abetted by the digital revolution). A number of Islamic extremist groups railed against the global spread of American culture and values via media as well. When some of those extremists attacked the United States on 11 September 2001, it fostered a similar backlash against globalization with the US. Although a number of US citizens moved to unite as a nation regardless of color, creed, or sexual orientation, others were so shocked and fearful in the aftermath of 9/11 that they sought to isolate the nation from the rest of the world. A global economic meltdown that began in late 2007, and eventually referred to as the Great Recession, was largely blamed on the collapse of multinational banks and corporations that were symbolic of unchecked globalization. Reactions included federal regulations on the financial sector and protests such as the “Occupy Wall Street” movement. The emotions roused by these events contributed to the increased polarization and instability of contemporary American culture. The US had swung from the conservative administration of President George W. Bush to the liberal policies of Barak Obama, the country’s first President of African descent. The election of President Obama led some to announce that the US was now in a “post‐racial” era – similar to other assessments of a “post‐feminist” era or even a “post‐gay” era. However, Donald Trump mobilized antagonism towards globalization to rail against progressive or liberal viewpoints, and to succeed Obama as President. Nonetheless, media movements such as Black Lives Matter or #MeToo continue to call out racism, sexism, and other forms of social injustice.
Such polarization has led not only to strident divergence in political opinion, but also fundamental disagreements over actual facts (climate change, mass shootings, terrorist activity, police interactions with racial minorities, immigration). Perhaps in an effort to uncover the truth, audience interest in documentary filmmaking grew in the 2000s. Yet, a number of these documentaries were accused of having a political bias – either left or right. The sophistication of digital technology to manipulate images and to disseminate them widely via the Internet and social media apps has made it increasingly difficult for the average citizen to distinguish between reality and “fake news.” The vast variety of entertainment options has also allowed individuals to surround themselves with images and voices that support their own viewpoints, creating a sort of “echo chamber” effect in which people rarely engage with ideas that differ from their own.
The rise of the comic book superhero genre could be said to reflect much of this turmoil. On a basic level, the desire to see superheroes quell formidable foes gives comfort to audiences still reeling from 9/11 and our subsequent military involvement in various global flashpoints. These films (and TV series) do so in a mostly comfortable, non‐threatening fashion; conversely, most films dealing directly with the Gulf War or other current events have not done well at the box office. America’s polarization has impacted the genre, though, with superheroes now battling each other as much as their shared foes. Marvel’s Captain America and the Avengers descended into a Civil War (2016), for example, and Batman v. Superman (2016) pitted possibly the two most iconic American superheroes in comic book history against each other. On the other hand, the formation of heroic groups such as The Avengers (2012), Guardians of the Galaxy (2014), or the Justice League (2017) reflect the concurrent desire to find strength in unity. Towards the end of the 2010s, such inclusive tendencies even resulted in the huge box office success of films centered on female superheroes (Wonder Woman [2017], Captain Marvel [2019]) and a black superhero (Black Panther [2018]). These films were groundbreaking in that they allowed fantasy blockbusters to speak to previously marginalized and/or under‐represented communities, and invited viewers from across the identity spectrum to identify with and admire them.
Chadwick Boseman as T’Challa in the popular and high‐grossing Black Panther (2018), the first African American comic book superhero to have a film devoted solely to him in the Marvel Cinematic Universe.
Nonetheless, in corporate Hollywood today, billions of dollars are at stake and while the industry may be on the cutting edge of technology, the vast majority of Hollywood films rarely seek to make radical aesthetic innovations or challenge pre‐existing ideas. They adhere to decades‐old formulas and genres that for the most part uphold the centrality of white patriarchal capitalism. Despite CGI (computer generated imagery) and the assorted spectacular visuals it can deliver, Hollywood narrative form and the invisible style remain similar to what they were during the classical years. Although Hollywood’s distribution and exhibition venues have changed a great deal, the basic economic goals of the Hollywood industry are still in place: to maintain tight control on the ever‐diversifying market in order to minimize risk and maximize profit.
Questions for Discussion
1 What types of movies do you prefer to watch? Are there art‐house or independent theaters close to you, or many miles away? Do you use streaming services to watch big blockbuster films or to find edgier, quirkier pictures? Or both?
2 Pick a few current Hollywood releases and see if they fit into the structure of classical Hollywood narrative form. How are concepts of race, class, gender, sexuality, and ability positioned by your chosen films?
3 Can you name some examples of synergy (cross‐marketing) associated with recent nostalgic Hollywood blockbusters?
Further Reading
1 Balio, Tino, ed. The American Film Industry. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1985.
2 Bordwell, David, Janet Staiger, and Kristin Thompson. The Classical Hollywood Cinema. New York: Columbia University Press, 1985.
3 Kramer, Peter. The New Hollywood: From Bonnie and Clyde to Star Wars. London and New York: Wallflower Press, 2005.
4 Lewis, Jon, ed. The New American Cinema. Durham: Duke University Press, 1998.
5 McSweeney, Terence, ed. American Cinema in the Shadow of 9/11. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2017.
6 Neale, Steve and Murray Smith. Contemporary Hollywood Cinema. New York: Routledge, 1998.
7 Ray, Robert. A Certain Tendency of the Hollywood Cinema, 1930–1980. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1985.
8 Schatz, Thomas. The Genius of the System. New York: Henry Holt, 1996.
9 Sklar, Robert. Movie‐Made America. New York: Vintage Books, 1994.
10 Wasko, Janet. Hollywood in the Information Age. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1995.
11 Wood, Robin. Hollywood from Vietnam to Reagan. New York: