Greek Rhetoric Before Aristotle. Richard Leo Enos
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ideas about classical rhetoric. As we learn more about the world of ancient Greeks and their worldview, we can posit more perceptive interpretations about their rhetoric. Scholarship over the last century has helped to advance this understanding in a number of ways: our sophistication over philological issues has increased, our understanding of Hellenic culture has likewise deepened, and our notion of the “history” of rhetoric has been more coherent and thorough than the patchwork accounts of our Victorian forefathers.
Yet, for all this scholarly advancement, there are still areas of need. Some of the more recent histories of rhetoric are not so much the result of newly discovered evidence but new perspectives for examining the same sources. While these perspectives are refreshing and often insightful, they do not in themselves provide new material for the study of ancient rhetoric. The attitudes about “doing history” also echo some of the predispositions of our forefathers. We tend—despite some re-orientations of characters and trends—to march through events in roughly the same fashion, forgetting that chronicles are not natural acts but only the perspectives of earlier historians that may or may not accurately reflect reality. Lastly, our work tends to start and finish at about the same time, and these parameters unconsciously set up boundaries that (by default) exclude other periods, topics, issues and individuals that do not fit the format.
This volume seeks to resolve some of these problems in a number of ways. The first is to provide a “pre-history” of classical rhetoric by examining emerging ideas that contributed to the establishment of rhetoric as a discipline in ancient Greece. We would do well to remember, however, that even the notion of “pre-history” is itself a relatively recent concept that was popularized in the mid-nineteenth century by the wave of enthusiasm following the exciting developments and discoveries in the new field of archaeology. Moreover, casting this project as a history of any sort does not mean to impose an orderly flow of events where such order does not actually exist. To do so would be to tell a story at the expense of accuracy rather than represent events that do not always occur in a coherent pattern. Acts are not always causal or rational; forces of political preference, cultural desire and social norms also dictate ideas and systems of rhetoric. Second, much of the scholarship done in or about the origins of rhetoric is general and anecdotal. The effort here is to go into depth about important individuals, ideas and movements which will reveal forces shaping ideas about rhetoric and setting the agenda for what early Hellenic culture thought was (and was not) important about rhetoric, as well as the debates that naturally ensued because of these disagreements. The intent here, then, is not to provide broad, general overviews but rather specific instances that provoke a deeper understanding of phenomena. Lastly, this work will introduce sources that have not been examined, works that are known but typically not included in rhetoric’s history and, consequently, new interpretations as well as the more traditional, literary ones.
This volume should provide the reader with an understanding of the multiplicity of forces that contributed to the shaping of rhetoric’s history, as well as areas of inquiry that can and should continue to be examined. What is presented here as a pre-history is more accurately a preface to the history of rhetoric. As is true with any preface, carefully articulated preliminary statements are intended to provide the reader with a perspective that will maximize the benefits of the subsequent work. Certainly, in a general history of rhetoric many individuals would receive much greater attention. Although Protagoras’s direct contributions to the development of rhetoric are still under discussion, there is little doubt that his contributions to philosophy and “linguistic developments” (Schiappa, Protagoras 198–203) warrant much more attention in a more generalized history. Similarly, the impact of Isocrates would also be a subject for discussion in a work that offered a broader range of topics. Here, however, our attention to prominent thinkers such as Protagoras and Isocrates focuses only on their impact on the evolving notions of discourse as they contribute to the emergence of rhetoric as a discipline. The object is to provide a context which will help readers better appreciate the more specialized studies of individuals as well as the broader, generalized histories. After reading this work, the reader should be able to turn to our current accounts of the history of classical rhetoric with new sources, new methods of analysis and criticism, and a better grounding for understanding and judgment.
Contents
Foreword to the Revised and Expanded Edition
Illustrations
Introduction: Recovering the Lost Art of Researching the History of Rhetoric
I. Emerging Notions of Rhetoric
II. Oral and Literate Composition in the Pre-Rhetorical Period
III. Literate Rhetoric in the Archaic Period
IV. The Birth of Hellenic Rhetoric and the Growth of the Sicilian Sophistic
V. Significant Contributors to Sicilian Rhetoric
VI. The “Art” of Literate Rhetoric
VII. The Secret Composition Practices of the Ancient Spartans
VIII. The Platonic Rejection of Sophistic Rhetoric and Its Hellenic Reception
Acknowledgments
Obviously, such an undertaking is not possible without considerable help and cooperation. As an alumnus of the American School of Classical Studies at Athens, I have had opportunities to return to Greece and gather evidence on rhetoric’s early history. I have also been fortunate enough to enjoy the continued support and cooperation of the American School as well as the Greek Ministry of Culture and the Greek Archaeological Service, who generously granted permission to reproduce rare epigraphical sources central to this work as well as several figures and drawings. Appreciation is also extended to the Ancient World Mapping Center at The University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill for granting permission to reproduce maps of Greece, Italy, Sicily and Crete. I also wish to acknowledge the generosity of Sage Publications for permitting me to use material I presented in Oral and Written Communication: Historical Approaches with John Ackerman, as well as Theresa Enos for material out of my essay in the Fall 1992 issue of Rhetoric Review. I also wish to thank Victor Vitanza, editor of Pre/Text, and Elizabeth Odoroff for permission to use earlier material on the development of rhetoric. Similarly, I wish to thank James J. Murphy and Lawrence Erlbaum Associates for allowing me to use material from my chapter in the second edition of A