Disaster Response and Recovery. David A. McEntire
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These are not hypothetical situations. Compound disasters occur more frequently than people think. For instance, on February 7, 2021, a glacier broke off a Himalayan mountain near Uttarakhand in Northern India. The massive displacement of ice, rock, and water broke a dam and flooded the Rishiganga, Dhauliganga and Alaknada Rivers. The water rushed downstream and subsequently damaged two other hydroelectric projects, as well as a number of roads and bridges. Several villages were impacted, and at least 36 people died and more than 200 were categorized as missing.
In addition, human vulnerability will complicate and exacerbate the impact of hazards/triggering agents. Studies reveal that disasters are not caused by a “single factor;” instead they are often the result of “accumulation of complex chains” of actions and events (Aini 2005, 56). For instance, warnings may not be heeded due to language barriers or cultural misunderstandings. Poverty may limit people’s options for evacuation and sheltering. A lack of preparedness may complicate emergency actions to save lives and treat the injured. Health disparities may exacerbate the spread of disease among vulnerable populations. Insufficient training may slow down damage assessment activities. Conflict over recovery policies may halt rebuilding efforts for an extended period of time. The diverse ways vulnerability interacts with hazards are almost limitless. The complexity of disasters is not always understood or appreciated.
The major point to consider from this section is that a single hazard is not the only thing you need to be concerned about as an emergency manager. You must appreciate the complex interaction of multiple hazards and diverse vulnerabilities as these relationships can have serious impacts upon response and recovery operations. In most cases, you will be responding to multiple hazards and vulnerabilities in any given disaster. This creates serious challenges that you must be ready to deal with at a moment’s notice.
For Example
Hurricane Katrina was a Complex Disaster
Hurricane Katrina will long be remembered as a complex disaster. In September 2005, Hurricane Katrina—a category four storm—slammed into the coastal areas of Louisiana, Mississippi, and Alabama. Each of these states suffered severe losses. However, it was New Orleans that gained national and international attention. The winds of the hurricane damaged structures in the “Big Easy” and affected power and phone service. Nevertheless, it was the storm surge and heavy rains that were most problematic. Lake Pontchartrain rose to historic levels and the levees set up to keep the waters from inundating the below‐sea‐level community were breached. New Orleans was flooded. Water, sewer, and gas lines were broken. The contents of numerous petroleum and hazardous chemical tanks were released. Homes and businesses were under water. Making matters worse, some antisocial behaviors including looting and violent conflict were reported around the city. The local, state, and federal response was slow and inadequate. The reaction was also hampered further when criminals began firing weapons at rescue helicopters and relief workers. Many evacuees sought shelter in the superdome where supplies were inadequate, and conditions quickly became filthy. Disaster victims were becoming increasingly concerned about the conditions prior to the arrival of federal aid arrived at the superdome. The delivery of assistance was delayed because flooding severely affected the transportation system. Public health workers feared an outbreak of disease due to the squalid living conditions and requested an evacuation of the city. However, the required exodus was complicated by poor planning before the hurricane and insufficient communication during response and recovery operations (Figure 1‐8). Katrina therefore involved natural, environmental, biological, technological, and civil hazards. And, the consequences are Hurricane Katrina are still being felt to this day.
1.5.1 The Impact of Disasters
As mentioned earlier, when a hazard or multiple hazards interact with humans and the vulnerability they create, disasters occur. The consequences may be staggering. People may be injured or killed as a result of these destructive events, and the impact is often significant. From 2001 to 2012, natural disasters killed 1.9 million people worldwide and affected another 2.9 billion (UNISDR, 2013). Deaths have also been significant in the United States. For instance, an admittedly dated study “estimated that natural hazards killed over 24,000 people between January 1, 1975 and December 31, 1994” (Mileti, 1999, p. 66). These statistics were collected from fires, flooding or other hazards, and these numbers do not include the toll of disease outbreaks, which are also substantial. The number of injuries from disasters should not be overlooked either, as it averages about 100 per week in the United States (Mileti, 1999, p. 66). Such injuries may include superficial cuts from flying glass in a tornado or serious internal wounds due to the collapse of a building after an earthquake.
Property is likewise damaged or destroyed in disasters, costing billions of dollars each year. Homes and belongings are decimated by landslides, fishing vessels are sunk in hurricanes, and businesses are flattened by strong winds. Furniture, clothing, televisions and cars are ruined in disasters. Losses average about $1 billion per week in the United States, and these figures are rising exponentially each decade (Mileti, 1999, p. 66). Hazardous materials spills, nuclear accidents, and other events can likewise degrade the natural environment, thereby affecting the health and well‐being of people beyond the current generation.
Disasters also disrupt individuals and society as a whole. Routine activities such as cooking, sleeping, and bathing may be hindered due to the damages of one’s appliances, bed, or home. Jobs are also lost, business transactions are prohibited, and traffic is snarled when hazards impact corporations and transportation systems. Disasters are also accompanied by building collapses, road closures, and downed power and phone lines. The infrastructure is often severely impacted. Simple tasks such as mailing a letter or having your trash hauled away cannot be performed because the government is also adversely affected by the event(s). Disasters, including terrorist attacks, cause economic decline and can sometimes jeopardize mental health. Disasters of all types have even led to political turmoil at times and have changed the direction of policy in the United States (e.g., the creation of the Department of Homeland Security after 9/11). There is no doubt that disasters have a bearing upon taxes, insurance rates, and many other aspects of our lives.
Figure 1‐8 This picture of boats impacting infrastructure illustrates why Hurricane Katrina was one of the most complex disasters to in U.S. history. Robert Kaufmann/FEMA. http://www.fema.gov/media-library/assets/images/47341
For Example
Disasters and Community Lifelines
FEMA created the “Community Lifelines” concept in order to better comprehend the consequences of disasters and improve communication of those impacts to the public and all pertinent parties involved in emergency management. Community Lifelines are fundamental services that are required to maintain routine operations in society. The lifelines that can be severely disrupted in disasters may include: 1. Safety and Security (including fire service, search and rescue, government service, and community safety); 2. Food, Water, and Shelter (including agriculture); 3. Health and Medical (including medical care, public health, patient movement, medical supply chain, fatality management); 4. Energy (including power grid and fuel); 5. Communications (including infrastructure, responder communications, alert warnings and messages, finance, 911, and dispatch); 6. Transportation (including highway/roadway/motor vehicle, mass transit, railway, aviation, and maritime); and 7. Hazardous materials (including facilities, HAZMAT, pollutants, and contaminants). The Community Lifelines concept was tested in many disasters since 2018, and it is now formalized in the 4th edition of the National Respond