Disaster Response and Recovery. David A. McEntire
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operations (NEMA, no date). The state government is the intermediary between the federal government and local and county/parish jurisdictions. It works with numerous politicians and public servants from cities, counties and regional governments to address a whole host of issues. The state includes departments similar to those at the local and county levels, with some notable differences as well. It is an important stakeholder in emergency management.
For instance, the State Emergency Management Agency is somewhat similar to the local emergency management office. It collaborates with all other departments at the state level in addition to local, county, and federal emergency management organizations. The State Emergency Management Agency may be an independent entity, or it can be affiliated with the governor’s office or even a state homeland security agency. In fact, since 9/11, emergency management and homeland security offices have undergone several organizational transformations. Sometimes, these agencies are co‐located, while in other cases they are separate entities. At times, they may be referred to as the Division of Emergency Management, the Emergency Management Agency, the Department of Homeland Security or the Homeland Security Agency. The important point to remember is that emergency management is typically more concerned with all types of disaster issues, while homeland security is generally geared toward crime and terrorist activity.
Besides emergency management and homeland security agencies, there are many other departments that become involved in disasters at the state level. As an example, the Department of Forestry is in charge of suppressing forest fires (Figure 2‐2). It is somewhat similar to a local fire department, but it is much larger and operates in rural areas instead of cities. The Department of Forestry has large ground crews as well as air support (e.g., helicopters and tankers) to assist when wildfires occur. The Department of Public Safety or Highway Department acts much like the local police department by handling traffic control after disasters. In some states, like Texas, the state Department of Public Safety plays an important role in assessing and declaring disasters. In other cases, emergency management offices are located in the Department of Public Safety or in a Division of the Governor’s Office.
Figure 2‐2 State firefighting resources such as this helicopter will be utilized to extinguish blazes as was the case in Loveland, CO. Michael Rieger/FEMA.
In addition to these agencies, many other departments in state government participate in response and recovery operations. The Department of Transportation facilitates large‐scale evacuations and rebuilds freeways after disasters. The Health Department at the state level assists with public and mental health issues. The Housing Department addresses housing shortages made evident after disasters. The Environment Department protects the quality of natural resources such as soil and water if they are adversely affected by a hazard. The loss of crops and cattle is a priority of the state Agriculture Department. The state Department of Insurance and Department of Commerce may also become involved in disasters if there are conflicts regarding the settlement of claims or if it appears that price gouging has occurred after disasters.
For Example
Evacuation before Hurricane Rita
After witnessing several weaknesses in Louisiana’s response after Hurricane Katrina, Texas wanted to avoid going through similar problems. The Texas Division of Emergency Management and Department of Public Safety worked closely with local law enforcement officials to evacuate Houston citizens prior to the arrival Hurricane Rita. When the northbound side of the freeway became jammed with thousands of motorists, the southbound lanes were reversed. This increased traffic flow but required the coordinated assistance of many police officers, sheriffs and others from the highway patrol. The state also had to provide gas for vehicles that ran out of fuel. The state worked with north Texas communities to receive evacuees and open shelters. The evacuation was not without problems as some elderly residents died due to the stress of evacuation. However, hundreds of thousands of people were successfully moved from harm’s way.
Much like a mayor or county judge (or parish president in Louisiana), the governor declares emergencies and disasters on behalf of the state (Ferro, Henry and MacLellan 2010). If the state is overwhelmed by the impact, the governor may seek internal or external assistance. This may include calling up the National Guard, which is a reserve military unit operated under the direction of the governor in each state (Stuhltrager 2006). Such a civilian force may assist law enforcement personnel, conduct search and rescue operations, remove debris or provide other types of support as required. The governor may also request relief from other states or the federal government. If the resources within the state prove insufficient, the governor may seek help from other states. For instance, Oklahoma turned to Iowa for help after the May 2013 tornados, because its leaders saw that Iowa had provided a great deal of assistance to aid Louisiana after Hurricane Katrina. Upon the governor’s request, the Emergency Management Assistance Compact (EMAC) can also be activated (Kapucu, Augustin and Garayev 2009). This is like a local mutual aid agreement, but it is operated through states instead. If requested, personnel, equipment and commodities can be sent from EMAC members to a state and communities that are in need. EMAC is operated under the National Association of Emergency Managers, which is an emergency management organization for governors and others affiliated with state emergency management agencies. If the resources of neighboring states or EMAC are insufficient, the governor may also request assistance of the federal government (Figure 2‐3).
Figure 2‐3 Many entities will work together to respond to disasters. In this picture, personnel from the National Guard and U.S. Department of Wildlife are traveling in a flooded area in Minot, ND, to check on status of telephone towers and power stations. Andrea Booher/FEMA.
2.1.4 Federal Government
The federal government is the national political unit that has the highest authority in the United States. The federal government includes political leaders and various agencies and departments that fulfill important disaster roles (Olshansky and Johnson 2015). As mentioned, if local and state jurisdictions are unable to cope with a large disaster, the president of the United States may declare a federal disaster and provide national resources to local and state governments. This occurs through the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) and the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA). These are the specific units of the federal government that are most heavily involved in response and recovery operations when disasters occur.
DHS was created after the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks. It includes 22 federal agencies and now has over 240,000 employees. DHS is primarily responsible for various security measures in the nation, and it is organized with a Secretary; a Management Directorate; a Science and Technology Directorate; an Office of Strategy, Policy and Plans; and many other offices that deal with legislative affairs, legal issues, public affairs, etc. One of the central goals of DHS is to prevent terrorist attacks on American soil. It therefore relies heavily upon agencies such as Immigration and Customs Enforcement, the Transportation Security Administration and the U.S. Coast Guard.
If a terrorist attack or a disaster occurs, DHS will work closely with FEMA since this agency has a primary responsibility to assist local and state governments under such conditions (Kreiser, Mullins and Nagal 2018). FEMA was created in 1979 by President Jimmy Carter to coordinate the emergency management activities