Disaster Response and Recovery. David A. McEntire
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organizations that do not have a relation to emergency management, there are others that become heavily involved in disasters when they occur (Alexander 2010; Kapucu 2007; Gazley and Brudney 2005) (see Chapter 7). A well‐known example is the American Red Cross (Hamilton 2005), but there are a host of other religious and community groups that participate in benevolent service as well. They range from the Salvation Army, Episcopal Relief and Development, Mennonite Disaster Services, and Southern Baptist Relief to the American Veterinary Medical Association and Team Rubicon (a military veteran organization involved in disaster response), among others.
2.3.1 The Red Cross
The American Red Cross is a national member of the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) and the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRCRCS). These organizations were created because of the caring leadership of Henry Dunant. As a young man from Switzerland, Dunant recognized the need to assist those wounded during an 1859 battle in Solferino, Italy. Thousands of soldiers were injured in the conflict between the Austrian Army and the Franco‐Sardinian Alliance. Most of the wounded lay helpless and dying in the battlefield. Dunant organized a relief effort among citizens to provide medical care to the military personnel in need. He also advocated that prisoners on both sides be treated with respect and dignity. These principles were ratified in 1863 by many European governments in Geneva, Switzerland (now the headquarters of the Red Cross movement). Today, the ICRC is based on several principles:
Humanity. The Red Cross has a desire to help those in need.
Impartiality. The assistance it gives will be provided without discrimination.
Neutrality. No preference will be shown toward either side involved in hostility.
Independence. Each society acts autonomously according to the laws of each nation.
Voluntary service. Volunteers and charitable service motivate actions, not profit.
Unity. There can be only one Red Cross organization in any particular country.
Universality. All Red Cross societies are equal; none is more important than the other.
Although the Red Cross was created to meet the needs of injured soldiers, this organization does not deal solely with conflict‐related events. Dunant himself thought that anyone in need of medical assistance should be given care, regardless of the cause. In fact, from its founding, the Red Cross has been involved in disaster relief activities (Neal 1992/1993; Popkin 1978; Deacon 1918).
As the Red Cross was being established abroad, Clara Barton (a nurse in the United States) was caring for the soldiers injured in the Civil War (Figure 2‐7). She heard about the International Red Cross movement and traveled to Europe to learn more about the fledgling organization. She returned home and in 1881 established the American Association of Red Cross Societies. The American Red Cross—as it is known today—serves Dunant’s and Barton’s dual aims.
Figure 2‐7 The Red Cross is present at almost any emergency or disaster, and it offers a variety of services to victims and survivors alike. Andrea Booher/FEMA.
Besides providing various services to the military (e.g., notifying deployed soldiers of a birth or death in the family), the American Red Cross was mandated by Congress to address citizen needs in time of disaster. The Red Cross has chapters and branches around the United States to prepare communities for disasters and give assistance after disasters strike. Their services, which are provided by both a small cadre of employees and a large number of volunteers, can be broken down into six areas:
1 Disaster health services. Provide first aid, fill prescriptions, and collect and distribute blood for those in need.
2 Mental health services. Support the emotional needs of disaster victims through counseling sessions and foster psychological recovery.
3 Disaster welfare inquiry. Receive calls from loved ones who are worried about their loved ones, take steps to contact such individuals, and relay information back to the concerned family members.
4 Family services. Determine and meet the immediate and long‐term needs of people including clothing, furniture, temporary housing, and even tools for work.
5 Mass care. Feed and establish shelters for emergency workers and the public.
6 Other services. Facilitate and support damage assessment, communications, volunteer management, logistics, interagency liaison, and public affairs.
For these reasons, the American Red Cross is an important part of emergency management in this country.
For Example
The Red Cross Responds to the Paso Robles Earthquake
A 6.5 magnitude earthquake struck the city of Paso Robles in central California on December 22, 2003. The Red Cross quickly mobilized to assess damages in residential areas. At least 10 teams of inspectors were sent into neighborhoods to determine the extent of destruction of homes and personal property. Their findings were shared with the local government which facilitated a federal disaster declaration. Without the Red Cross, the needs of victims would not be well known or quickly addressed.
2.3.2 Faith‐Based Organizations
Faith‐based organizations perform some of the same disaster functions as other non‐profits, but they are associated with religious organizations (Phillips and Jenkins 2010; Smith 1978). One of the most notable is the Salvation Army (Ross 1970). This religious movement was founded in England by William Booth in 1852 and was initially called the Hallelujah or Volunteer Army. The goal of the Salvation Army is to preach Christianity and care for the poor and needy. In 1879, this organization gained a foothold in the United States and established its headquarters in Alexandria, Virginia.
Today, the Salvation Army is divided into four geographic areas around the country. It has developed memorandums of understanding to assist local and state governments when disaster strikes. Its 24,550 employees and thousands of volunteers take care of immediate and long‐term needs of disaster victims. This includes the provision of physical, material, emotional or spiritual necessities. Like the Red Cross, the Salvation Army provides food, water and sheltering. These two organizations are different in other respects, however. The Salvation Army has religious motivations, whereas the Red Cross does not.
There are a number of other faith‐based groups that participate in response and recovery efforts. They include the Adventist Development & Relief Agency, Baptist Men, Catholic Relief Services, Latter‐Day Saint Charities, Lutheran World Relief, Samaritan’s Purse and the United Methodist Committee on Relief. Other groups that help after disasters include Muslim and Asian faith‐based organizations. There are hundreds of similar groups around the world that respond to disasters in developing nations. These and further organizations care for the physical needs of disaster victims and provide spiritual and mental health counseling (Feldbush 2007; Massey and Sutton 2007; Sherman, Green and Brissett 2006).
2.3.3 Community Groups
Countless community groups are similarly involved in disasters and provide relief to those who have been negatively impacted (Robinson and Murphy 2014; Brennan 2005). Such entities include the United Way, the Rotary Club, Goodwill Industries, and Boy and Girl Scout chapters, among others. Even Antifa (a left‐leaning antifascist and sometimes