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and management practices (Weissert et al. 2014). Temperature and precipitation are two major factors determining the plant establishment and growth attributes, thus, influencing the biomass accumulation and C‐sequestration potential (Reich et al. 2014). Thus, changing climate scenario is also considerably impacting the C‐sequestration potential of vegetation (Richards et al. 2019). Therefore, detailed spatio‐temporal variation in urban vegetation C‐storage behaviour in different regions of the world is needed to develop effective climate change mitigation strategies.
1.5.4.1 Urban Soils
The soils in the urban ecosystems have been extensively modified by different anthropogenic activities which include physical disturbances, waste deposition, filling materials, buildings, and management (irrigation and fertilisation) practices (Lorenz and Lal 2009; Raciti et al. 2012). As like urban vegetation, urban soils are the major storehouse of the C (Liu and Li 2012). Studies report that the urban soil C‐stocks (organic and inorganic) are substantial as observed in the natural ecosystems (Vasenev and Kuzyakov 2018). Interestingly, urban soils contain a massive amount of C locked inside the impervious surfaces which have limited scope for decomposition, thus, act as a potential sink of C‐stocks (Vasenev and Kuzyakov 2018). Moreover, several studies reported that the urban soils have significant potential of C‐sequestration with proper management practices (Wang et al. 2019; Upadhyay et al. 2021). With the increase in atmospheric CO2 concentration, temperature and growing seasons, and management practices, the inputs of C to the soil are also increasing which further improve the soil C‐sequestration potential (Raciti et al. 2012). However, loss of soil organic C as soil CO2 efflux with these changes in the surrounding conditions has also been observed in several studies (Raciti et al. 2012; Upadhyay et al. 2021). Therefore, there is a need to give more research attention on managing the urban soil C‐stocks and improving the ways for more C‐sequestration potential of soils, particularly in the tropical regions.
1.6 Conclusions and Future Research Directions
Humans are the major driving factors for most of the changes occurring in the urban ecosystems. Urban ecology provides a considerable understanding of the socio‐ecological dimensions of urban ecosystems in relation to the human beings. For a more effective understanding of the processes and changes occurring in the urban ecosystems, concept of urban metabolism is getting wider attention. The climate change is affecting and expected to impact more severely the urban ecosystems in the near future. Urban green spaces and related water bodies provide several ecosystem services to the humans and can be developed as potential tools for the mitigation of climate change. In addition to green spaces, green roofs and green buildings are emerging as potential approaches for sustainable urban development. With proper planning and management strategies based on the integration of various emerging tools and techniques for developing resilient and self‐regulating systems, urban ecology may help in mitigating the adverse effects of climate change on urban ecosystems.
Acknowledgements
Authors are thankful to University Grants Commission (UGC, Reference No. F.30‐461/2019 (BSR)), and Science and Engineering Research Board (SERB, Reference No. PDF/2020/001607), New Delhi, India for financial support. RS is thankful to the Director, Institute of Environment & Sustainable Development (IESD), BHU, Varanasi; and Prof. Daizy R. Batish and Chairperson, Department of Botany, Panjab University, Chandigarh for providing necessary infrastructure for writing this chapter.
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