Quinoa. Atul Bhargava
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adapted to high-altitude environments above 4000 m because of its extreme frost tolerance and is still cultivated in these areas (Galwey, 1995). Huazontle (C. berlandieri subsp. nuttalliae) was domesticated in Mexico, where it was cultivated both as grain and as potherb, but it is now cultivated mainly for its leaves and immature inflorescences (Bhargava et al., 2005). A domesticated form of C. album is cultivated in the Himalayas as a seed grain and potherb (Partap and Kapoor, 1985; Bhargava et al., 2007b), while foliage of other species like C. giganteum, C. murale and C. bushianum is also consumed as food and fodder, but to a lesser extent (Kunkel, 1984; Partap et al., 1998; Bhargava et al., 2008). Quinoa has been cultivated in the Andean region for thousands of years as a grain crop suited to diverse climatic conditions.
3.2 The Andean Region and Quinoa
The Andean region covers 2 million square kilometres and extends from southern Venezuela to northern Argentina and Chile, and includes Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia (Izquierdo and Roca, 1998). This ecoregion is one of the world’s most fragile and least understood environments and has been severely damaged by soil erosion, deforestation, overgrazing, contamination by mining wastes and poor water management (National Research Council, 1989). In terms of biodiversity, the Andean ecoregion is very rich: more than a third of the world’s foods are indigenous to the region. Apart from their ability to grow at high altitudes under extremely harsh temperature and water stress conditions, these crops have a wide range and mix of desirable characteristics: high protein, vitamin and starch content, high yield and important medicinal properties (Izquierdo and Roca, 1998).
Quinoa has been an important food grain source in the Andean region since 3000 BC and occupied a place of prominence in the Incan empire next only to maize (Tapia, 1982; Cusack, 1984). However, following the Spanish conquest of the region in 1532, other crops, such as potato, faba beans, oats and barley, relegated quinoa to the background (Galwey, 1995; Bhargava et al., 2006). During the colonial period the cultivation of quinoa was discouraged, possibly because of its honoured position in Incan society and religion (Risi and Galwey, 1989a). Quinoa’s religious significance for the Incas made it a less attractive crop to the Spanish than the potato. The status of quinoa as ‘Mother Grain’ and the ‘Grain of the Gods’ put it in direct conflict with the Catholic religion promoted by the Spanish Conquistadors. Their religious leaders therefore discouraged its production and consumption in the newly conquered territories. The trend continued until the sporadic failure of the green revolution in the Andes and widespread destruction of other crops by droughts. This once again brought native crops, like quinoa, to the forefront because its yields were less affected in severe conditions (Cusack, 1984; Bhargava et al., 2006). During the 1980s a market for quinoa was established in Europe and North America, mainly in the health-food sector. The market demand was met partly by imports from South America and partly by development of quinoa in ‘new regions’ outside its centre of origin.
3.3 Quinoa in its Native Region
Willdenow was the first to botanically describe quinoa as a species native to South America, whose centre of origin, according to Buskasov, was in Bolivia and Peru (Cárdenas, 1944). However, during the last decade, Chile, Ecuador, Argentina and Colombia have started extensive cultivation and research projects on quinoa, such as SICA (Agricultural Census and Information System) of the Agricultural Ministry of Ecuador; Quinuacoche CANOE Program promoted by the Latin American Foundation in Colombia; Provincial Congress for Quinoa promoted by the Chamber of Deputies of Salta, Argentina; Program of Encouragement for Business Design and Innovation promoted by the Euro Chile Foundation (Taboada et al., 2011).
Quinoa is seen as an oligocentric species with a broad centre of origin and multiple diversification. The Andean altiplano, a high plains region encompassing Lake Titicaca and extending approximately 800 km from north to south, lies mostly between 3500 and 4300 m above sea level. The shores of Lake Titicaca in the Andean region are considered to be the area of greatest genetic diversity and variation of the crop (Mujica, 1992). Quinoa is distributed throughout the Andean region, from Colombia (Pasto) to northern Argentina (Jujuy and Salta) and Chile (Antofagasta), where a group of quinoas have been found at sea level (Lescano, 1994).
In fact, quinoa cultivation occurred in areas where it is absent today. Most notable of these are northern Colombia near Bogota, and Cordoba Province in eastern Argentina. The major areas of current quinoa cultivation (Fig. 3.1) appear to extend southward from extreme southern Colombia through Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia, with extensions into the Chilean altiplano (eastern Tarapaca) and northern Argentina (Jujuy and Salta) (Wilson, 1990). According to Rojas (1998), the geographical distribution of quinoa in the region extends from 5°N in southern Colombia to 43°S in the Xth Region of Chile. Its altitudinal distribution ranges from sea level in Chile to 4000 m in the altiplano of Bolivia and Peru.
Fig. 3.1. Distribution of quinoa and other members of subsect. Cellulata in South America. [Reprinted from Wilson et al. (1990), with permission from Springer.]
3.3.1 Bolivia
Historically, the best quality quinoa has been produced in Bolivia. The high-quality quinoa from Bolivia is sold in European, North American and Asian markets at high prices. Apart from being a major producer, Bolivia is also the world’s number one exporter of quinoa and fulfils almost 42% of the quinoa demand in the international market (Antonio, 2011).
The Bolivian altiplano is a vast basin lying between the Royal Cordillera and the Western Cordillera (Vacher, 1998). It consists of a series of plateaus covering an area of 70,000 km2, whose altitudes vary from 3700 to 4100 m, and a secondary mountain range whose summits reach up to 5000 m (Geerts et al., 2006). More than 35,000 hectares of quinoa have been cultivated throughout the Bolivian altiplano. The main cultivation areas are in La Paz, in the provinces of Aroma and Gualberto Villaroel, in Oruro, in the region of Salinas de Garci Mendoza in the province of Ladislao Cabrera, and in Potosí, which includes the region of Llica in the Province of Daniel Campos and the Province of Nor Lípez, one of the areas producing high-quality quinoa (Rojas et al., 2004).
3.3.2 Peru
The agroecological zone on the Peruvian altiplano is complex and large, containing tremendous variation in agricultural production determined by physical factors (Aguilar and Jacobsen, 2003). Three major agroecological zones are identified in Peru, namely Puna, Suni and Circunlacustre, which are further subdivided into smaller areas called ‘ayonoqas’. Peru has a good range of genetic variability in quinoa and cultivation occurs under environmental conditions that change from year to year. Puno is the main quinoa-producing region (75% of total production), followed by Huancayo (10%) and Cusco (5%) (Mujica et al., 2003). Other important quinoa-producing areas include Cajamarca, Callejón de Huayllas, Valle del Mantaro and Andahuayllas.
3.3.3 Chile
The long Chilean mainland territory (3000 km) extends between 18°S to 43°S. Three different biogeographic regions of quinoa are recognized in Chile, namely, the north altiplano, the centre and the southern region (Bazile and Negrete, 2009; Fuentes et al., 2009). The quinoa crop in north Chile is cultivated primarily by indigenous Aymara Indians in the northern Chilean altiplano, and the cultivation extends to the south-central zone of Chile in a fragmented pattern (Fuentes et al., 2009). The lowland landraces are cultivated on small family farms in the southern regions of Chile from elevations of 1000 m to near sea level, practices inherited from Pehuenche’s ancient cultures at 34–36°S and from the Mapuches at 40°S (Martínez et al., 2007). The crop is also cultivated at high elevations above 3500 m in the Chilean altiplano (Isluga and Iquique) (Martínez et al., 2009).