Black Mens Studies. Serie McDougal III
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identities as a moral beings, along with identities as Black and male. In ←66 | 67→the final stage, moral internality, an individual’s revised moral identity is internalized. Wood and Hilton (2013) propose that this model be used to help understand Black male moral behavior and identity. The model may also be useful in the development of programs, interventions, and rites of passage that involve Black male moral development.
Black Male Gender Role Balance
The fundamental gender role conflict between Afrocentric and Euro-American (Eurocentric) cultures is that Afrocentric culture compels Black men to be cooperative and to work in the interest of the collective good, while Euro-American culture stresses individual success and economic achievement (Wester et al., 2006). However, Black males have never been aligned, in a general sense, with Euro-American manhood. According to Franklin (1994), Black men have been historically chided for not being competitive, aggressive, and emotionally stoic enough. According to Belgrave and Brevard (2015), as compared to other racial/ethnic groups in the U.S., African American male youth are more likely to hold gender role beliefs that have been referred to as androgynous (both masculine and feminine) from a Eurocentric perspective. It must be noted that these gender role beliefs are described as androgynous only when Euro-American manhood ideals are defined as the standard for manhood. For example, some studies show that African American men are more likely to engage in housekeeping and childcare as compared to White men (Willinger, 1993). Additionally, although prosocial behavior (behaviors intended to help others) is usually higher among girls, McMahon, Wernsman, and Parnes (2006) conducted a study which found African American boys engaged in more prosocial behavior than African American girls. While girls typically engage in more relational aggression (bullying or harming others by damaging their relationships), and boys tend to engage in more physical aggression, Sullivan, Helms, Kliewer, and Goodman (2010) found no difference in relational aggression among fifth- and eighth-grade boys as compared to same-grade girls in a predominantly African American sample. Although boys typically engage in more overt aggression, Esposito (2007) conducted a study that found no difference in overt aggression between participating African American boys and girls.
Black males have never fit cleanly within Eurocentric or Western notions of manhood and masculinity. These differences are in large part explained by parental socialization (Belgrave & Brevard, 2015). Mandara, Murray, et al. (2011) found that boys and girls living in homes without their fathers tend to have similar gender roles. One explanation is that boys in father-absent homes may be more likely to assume certain household responsibilities such as caring for a sibling, preparing meals, and responsibilities that emphasize nurturing. However, boys may also be encouraged to stand up for themselves and assume characteristics such as independence, assertiveness, and control. It must also be noted that males in father-present homes have been found to exhibit more mainstream American masculine gender roles, yet engage in less delinquent behavior Mandara, Rogers, and Zinbarg (2011). Finally, nurturing and emotionality are central to Black men’s definitions of manhood.
Transgender Identities
Dancy (2012) argues that the rising reality of transgender identities and gender reassignment make them a phenomenon that cannot be ignored. For transgender persons, the gender associated with their sex at birth differs from their personal sense of identity. Transgender is not a sexual orientation, but instead the physical appearance and behaviors that break norms associated with society’s expectations of males and females. A transgender person may identify as straight, gay, lesbian, heterosexual, bisexual, or asexual. Garofalo, Deleon, Osmer, Doll, and Harper (2006) investigated the challenges and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) risk behaviors of 51 male-to-female (MTF) transgender youth from underrepresented ethnic groups. Compared to other ethnic groups in the study, African American youth had the highest rates of HIV. Many of them engaged in sex work in which they encountered ←67 | 68→forced sex and unsafe sex (Garofalo et al., 2006; Rosario, 2009). To enhance the health and wellness of the Black community, it is important that transgender realities are understood.
The Uniqueness of Black Male Perceptions of Manhood and Masculine Roles
Black males have their own unique manhood identities and masculinities. Many Black males do endorse values associated with so-called traditional manhood such as taking care of the family, being goal-oriented, competitive, and aggressive (Wade, 1996; Wood & Hilton, 2013). Yet, what goes less-recognized are the research studies that find Black males endorsing “non-traditional” manhood values that are consistent with their own traditional African and African American manhood values such as spirituality, community, the well-being of others, compassion, familial equality, warmth, gentleness, and standing up for beliefs (Cazenave, 1979; Cazenave & Staples, 1983; Hammond & Mattis, 2005; Wade, 1996).
Black Male Definitions and Core Principles of Manhood
Using responses to open-ended survey questions, Chaney (2009) studied how Black men define manhood in their own words and from their own cultural locations. Similarly, Hunter and Davis (1992) interviewed Black men about their understanding of manhood and found several key themes. Additionally, a few other scholars are beginning to seek the voices of Black men to get a sense of how they define manhood on their own terms (Hammond & Mattis, 2005; Wood & Hilton, 2013). Some common features defined by Black males are the following:
• Self-Awareness/Knowledge: Black men have been found to associate manhood with being aware of one’s skills and capabilities. They have also associated manhood with an awareness of how they present themselves to the world in relation to their physical appearance/demeanor (Chaney, 2009; Hammond & Mattis, 2005; Hunter & Davis, 1992). This knowledge and awareness includes an understanding of who they are and the importance of standing up for the principles they believe in.
• Collective/Self Responsibility and Accountability: Black men often associate responsibility with manhood. This notion of responsibility includes qualities like maturity, stability, and reliability (i.e., meeting financial expectations) (Hunter & Davis, 1992). Responsibility exists on many levels (Chaney, 2009; Wade, 1996; Wood & Hilton, 2013).
◦ Self: Black men often associate manhood with being responsible for their own behaviors (Hunter & Davis, 1992; Wade, 1996; Wood & Hilton, 2013).
◦ Family: Black men also associate manhood with having a connectedness to family and meeting the needs of their family members and loved ones (Hammond & Mattis, 2005; Hunter & Davis, 1992; Wade, 1996; Wood & Hilton, 2013).
◦ Community: Black men have also been found to associate manhood with responsibility for their communities (Hunter & Davis, 1992). This also involves having a certain level of community pride and desiring to provide for one’s community (Hammond & Mattis, 2005).
• Providing: Black men also commonly associate manhood with being emotional, social, and financial providers, and way-makers (providing opportunities) for their families and loved ones (i.e., wives, partners, children, parents) (Chaney, 2009; Hammond & Mattis, 2005; Hunter & Davis, 1992). Providing is closely related to collective/self-responsibility.←68 | 69→
• Nurturing: Studies of Black manhood which allow Black males to define manhood in their own words reveal that Black men commonly associate manhood with being nurturing, in ways that include warmth and gentleness, compassion, and the ability to express emotion and emotionally connect with others (Cazenave & Staples, 1983; Hammond & Mattis, 2005).
• Morality and Virtue: Black men have been found to associate manhood with having morals and principles they are willing to stand up for (Chaney, 2009; Hammond & Mattis, 2005; Hunter & Davis, 1992).
• Achievement/Goal Orientation: Black men have also been found to associate manhood with a certain consciousness that sometimes involves a groundedness or focus (determination), pride, an orientation toward achieving goals, or using these attributes through engaging in competition (Hammond & Mattis, 2005; Hunter & Davis, 1992; Wade, 1996; Wood & Hilton, 2013).
• Assertiveness/Self-Determination: Not only do Black men associate manhood with having principles, but also in upholding them in ways that demonstrate assertiveness and self-determination.