Introduction to Japanese Architecture. David Young
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it houses the Great Buddha.
Indigenous and Foreign Influences
Japanese society has been inundated at various times by cultural influences from abroad. In early times, these influences came primarily from Korea and China; more recently, mostly from Europe and the United States. In both cases, the Japanese welcomed foreign influences and attempted to copy what were perceived to be superior cultures. A reaction eventually set in, with the result that foreign influences were assimilated and made part of the Japanese tradition. Rather than being overwhelmed by foreign cultures, the Japanese repeatedly have demonstrated a talent for creatively blending different influences into new styles that express basic Japanese values and aesthetic preferences.
The Main Hall and Meditation Hall at Gangōji Temple. These beautiful multicolored tiles, made by Korean craftsmen in the Asuka Period, are the oldest tiles in Japan. The more recent tiles used on the adjacent roof slope to the right are more uniform in color.
This close-up of a post at Hōryūji Temple, near Nara, demonstrates one method of preservation: cutting out a rotted piece of wood and replacing it with a plug made from the same kind of material.
Preserving the Past
Considerable effort is expended upon preserving old buildings. This requires dealing with the advantages and disadvantages of wood, the most popular building material in traditional Japan. Wood is easy to work with, it can be fashioned into a variety of shapes, and it can be used to create structures that are earthquake resistant. The main disadvantage of wood is that it rots and burns. The Japanese have dealt with this disadvantage in a number of ways.
Regular renewal involves the custom, associated with early Shinto shrines, of periodically making a more or less exact copy of a building, after which the original is torn down. The most famous example of regular renewal is Ise Jingū, the most important of the early imperial shrines. Regular renewal made it unnecessary to be overly concerned about decay since even posts planted directly in the ground, a method used in early shrines, usually survive until a building is dismantled and a new one built.
A common practice in traditional Japan was to recycle materials, such as using lumber and tiles from buildings that have collapsed, been partially destroyed by fire or war, or intentionally torn down, in the construction or repair of other buildings. For example, tile was invented in China about 4,000 years ago, but old tiles apparently were not reused. In Japan, however, tiles frequently were salvaged from dismantled buildings and used in the construction of new buildings—often in connection with the frequent moves of the early capitals.
Preservation is the practice of taking steps to save architectural members that are decaying, and reinforcing structures that are in danger of collapse. For example, the five-story pagoda at Honmonji Temple in Tokyo was built in 1608. After 400 years, the pagoda had developed a number of serious problems. Eaves brackets were being crushed from the weight of the roof and the bottom portion of many of the posts on the first level were rotten. Normally all of these parts would be replaced. Because of the fear that the building would lose its cultural value if this were done, however, the damaged parts were injected with carbon fiber. In this way, 70 percent of the damaged parts were preserved.
In contrast to preservation, remodeling involves modifying a structure to bring it into line with contemporary styles or to enable it to meet the requirements of a revised function. One of the most interesting examples of remodeling is the Higashi Chōshūden, a building constructed in the early eighth century (Nara Period) for government workers at the Heijōkyō palace. The building was remodeled as a temple around 760 when it was moved to become the Lecture Hall of Tōshōdaiji Temple in Nara. In the process of remodeling, the slope of the roof was increased and its shape was altered. In addition, the bays between the posts were filled in with walls, doors, and windows to make it resemble other temples from that period. The Lecture Hall was remodeled again in the thirteenth century, giving its current appearance.
In restoration, those parts of a structure that have been damaged by natural forces, such as fire, or that have decayed over time and cannot be saved, are replaced. To continue the story of Tōshōdaiji Temple related above, when it was decided in the year 2000 that the Main Hall had to undergo a major restoration, a one-tenth scale model was constructed and exact measurements were taken of every part of the building. The hall's main frame consists of 20,000 interlocking parts that fit together like a giant jigsaw puzzle, without the use of nails, making it possible to take the building apart without serious damage. Each piece of wood that is being removed is given a tag indicating its original location, and is replicated if necessary.
Frequently, there is nothing left to be preserved, remodeled, or restored. Reconstruction refers to the necessity of rebuilding a structure that no longer exists, or replacing parts of a structure that have been lost. For example, in 1967, Yakushiji Temple in Nara embarked upon a large-scale program of reconstructing the grandeur of its original Nara Period compound. The first project was to restore the Main Hall that had been destroyed several centuries earlier. There were no extant drawings, but fortunately the temple possessed a Heian Period document that described the original temple complex. On the basis of this and other evidence, such as an archaeological excavation of the original site, the Main Hall was back in its original position in 1976, after nine years of intensive effort.
Reconstruction of the Main Hall at Yakushiji Temple in Nara was completed in 1976, after being destroyed centuries earlier, on the basis of archaeological evidence, a Heian Period document, and a surviving pagoda on the grounds.
Status and Function
For many centuries Japan has been a hierarchical society, with considerable emphasis upon status, authority, and power. Differences in architectural styles provide a material expression of these differences in rank. To some extent, the history of Japanese traditional architecture can be viewed in terms of the contrast between the architecture of the elite and the architecture of common people. The former is exemplified by palaces and villas, as well as the temples and shrines patronized by rulers. The latter can be seen in farmhouses and the shop-dwellings of merchants. These elite and commoner traditions are, however, not immutable. They sometimes come together, as in the case of a wealthy farmer who includes a formal Shoin style room, associated with elite dwellings, in his farmhouse.
Differences in architectural styles are also associated with differences in function. Thus the styles of a Shinto shrine and Buddhist temple can be quite distinct, despite the fact that they both are religious edifices. Here again, however, the differences should not be overemphasized. Shinto and Buddhist architecture often influenced each other, and at one time the two religions were even combined, creating an eclectic style of religious architecture.
The structure that most concretely indicates status and function is the gate. Gates have practical significance in terms of controlling access to spaces. They also have symbolic significance in that their design, size, and materials indicate something about the wealth and power of their owners or the people who enter. A few examples are described below.
A torii is a gate without doors that marks the entrance to a Shinto shrine precinct. Literally, torii means "where the birds are." Some scholars have suggested that originally torii may have provided a perch for sacred birds, such as the chickens which played a role in a famous myth about the sun goddess, the ancestress of the imperial line. Regardless of the origins of torii, their main function is to provide a dividing line between the exterior profane world and the interior sacred space where the kami dwell (see pages 18-19). Torii are constructed of wood, stone, or metal and are sometimes painted red. They vary in size from small structures, such as those at the entrance to a neighborhood shrine, to enormous edifices that mark the entry to a major Shinto compound. After the coming of Buddhism, many major shrines adopted a Buddhist style gate, retaining one or more torii to mark the approach.
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