From Paideia to High Culture. Imelda Chlodna-Blach
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In the works of Panaetius himself, the terms and ideas taken from the earlier period of the Greek thought, such as anthropinos (human), received additional meaning as elements of paidéa. Moreover, Panaetius often replaced the word paidéia by a new word: anthropismos (humanity). In this sense, the word was also used by his disciple, Poseidon, who, in turn, was to become a teacher of Cicero. Cicero was called one of the most brilliant successors of the Scipionic Circle.203 He personally knew the last members of that congregation and he felt obliged to familiarize the Roman society with the ideal of humanitas. Thus, due to Cicero, the Greek paidéia, through anthropismos of Panaetius and Poseidon, became humanitas (from Latin homo – man, humanus – human).204
From the semantic point of view, the term is difficult to define, at least due to the fact that it was perceived differently over the centuries.205 In Latin, the ←58 | 59→indicated word has a variety of meanings, depending on the context: 1) “human nature,” “humanity;” 2) “nobility of customs, culture, civilization, elegance;” 3) “being human with respect to someone, kindness, graciousness, courtesy;” 4) “education, good manners, culture, polish, elegance, aesthetic taste.” In the post-classical period, the following terms were added: 1) “mankind, humanity, people;” 2) “equity, rationale;” 3) “generosity;” 4) “treat, hospitality’.206 These are elementary explanations that raise awareness on the broad meaning of the term, for which it is difficult to find a precise synonym in both Greek and in modern languages.207
Apart from the Greek word paidéia, the Latin word humanitas corresponds in meaning to the Greek concept of philanthrôpía (love for what makes us human). The indicated terms express many qualities which make up the Romanian traditional, unwritten code of conduct (mos maiorum – the custom of the ancestors). Cicero stressed the indicated fact at the beginning of his Tusculan Disputations: “[…] our countrymates gained an advantage through valour or even more through discipline. Finally, what they attained due to the features of character and not by virtue of scholarship could not be compared with either Greece or any other nation. What nation was distinguished by such dignity, stability, magnanimity, reliability and fidelity glowing with such wonderful qualities of all kinds that could be compared with our ancestors?’208 Thus, the Greek words philanthrôpía and paidéia were close in meaning to the term humanitas. The first term referred more to ethical (virtus) and social values and was closer to today’s humanitarianism, whereas the second term was associated with intellectual values (doctrina) and a later notion of “humanism.’209 However, as Wiesław Pawlak indicates, none of the words –philanthrôpía or paidéia, because of a narrower meaning, can be treated as a synonym of humanitas. Although he admits that in structural terms (association with homo) humanitas is closer to the Greek philanthropy.210 Originally, philanthropy referred to deities and their particular friendliness towards people. The adjective philántropos was first used ←59 | 60→in the tragedy Prometheus Bound, attributed to Aeschylus. There was a reference there to the main protagonist’s spirit that was friendly to people (mortal). Similarly, Plato used the indicated adjective primarily with reference to gods. Then, philanthropy was used to define the virtue of the high-ranked people, especially the rulers who showed their mercy to the subjects. Philanthropy understood in this way was praised by Xenophon and Isocrates who thought that “who wants to reign, should be a philanthropist (philántropos) and should love his city-state (philópolin).’211 Additionally, Isocrates stressed the high culture of Athens that affected others, which was also a manifestation of philanthropy: “Now, our city has so far surpassed all the rest of mankind in political prulence and artful persuasions […] our city has caused the name of Grecian no longer seems to be a mark of a nation, but of good sense and understanding: those are called Greeks that have the advantage of our education, rather than the natives of Greece.’212 He thereby focused on the fact that the ideal of paidéa was realized in Athens and was understood as a constant striving for wisdom and knowledge and as a higher level of education or culture which was the effect of the indicated desire.
In turn, a broader scope of use of the term philanthropy may be noticed in the writings of Demosthenes. As W. Pawlak notices, this concept started to change its meaning in the democratic Athens. It denoted: compassion, reckoning with others, courtesy or simply a broadly perceived kindness towards others. In the court speeches, it was often about the philanthropy of the judges against the accused and thus an attitude close to compassion and mercy. It was also the virtue of the accused as citizens manifesting itself in the participation in social life and bearing the burden for the benefit of the state. The word “philanthropy” additionally denoted friendly, kind interpersonal relations and even an attitude of the tamed animals towards human beings. However, the use of this noun usually indicates an attitude that assumes certain superiority or some advantage over another person. It has its roots in the original meaning of philanthropy, which in the first place related to deities.213
Going back to the term humanitas, among the Latin writers of the classical period, Cicero was the one who used the term most frequently.214 Around 80 BC, ←60 | 61→the term occurs in his speeches, letters, rhetorical and philosophical writings as one of the most important terms referring to man and thus as a key term within his anthropology.215 As Pawlak emphasizes: “The high rank attributed to humanitas by Cicero and the changes that he made in the semantics of the concept turned out to be fraught with consequences for the future of the indicated term since both the direct successors of Arpinata and later Roman authors as well as fifteenth- and the sixteenth-century humanists more or less referred to his very concept.’216 The term humanitas was for the first time certified in an anonymous Rhetoric to Herennius (ca. 86–82 BC.), where it denoted both humanity as such (characteristics typical of a human nature per se), and its particular aspect, expressed through the treatment of people, including enemies, in a manner that is worthy of man, so in a kindly, sympathetic and “humane” way. However, only in the circle of Cicero, did the idea fully develop. He used the term humanitas in various meanings:217
• In the most basic one – to define human nature (natura humana, natura hominis) in contrast to animals and gods;
• characterising interpersonal relations relevant to human dignity (common humanity for all communis humanitas – is what requires us to save our opponents and do good to others; humanitas discourages from committing murder and constitutes an antidote to the horrors of civil war, which lead to the disappearance of all traces of humanitas in human hearts);
• he also appealed to the humanitas of judges to raise their sympathy in the cases in which he acted as a defender or a prosecutor;
• he used the term in the meaning of the royal virtue, worthy of rulers, chiefs and all those who exercised power. There is therefore the following advice given by Cicero to his brother Quintus – the governor of the Asia province: “[…] if fate gave you power over Africans, Spaniards or Gauls, the savage and barbarian ←61 | 62→nations, you should still strive for their comfort, their needs and safety, due to your humanitas;”218
• while using the indicated term, he characterized the formation of an ideal speaker – rhetorician, who, as he claimed, should be equipped with a set of virtues that predisposed him both to active public life and to satisfactory private life. As Cicero writes, the goal of this formation should be a comprehensive education based on natural talents and continuous exercise. He underlined the importance of cultivating both moral and social values.
However, his greatest merit was the significant expansion of the importance of humanitas. The words humanum and humanitas concerned not only the human nature and a friendly attitude towards other people but also what belonged to the specificity of man as man, not only in relation to others but with reference to himself and to his own talents as well.219 Thus, the aforementioned terms defined the essence of humanity, as nothing given but assigned by nature as a subject of constant development and improvement and as an ideal that one should aim at, making use of everything that man was inherently equipped. Human activities are here motivated by moral obligation (honestum) and the inner sense of decency (decorum), on account of which man is capable of sacrifice. Thanks to the fact that man is equipped with reason, he can attain the perfection placing him above the average. According to Cicero, human perfection