Telescopic Work for Starlight Evenings. William F. Denning
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are a good many details connected with observation which, though advice may be tendered in a general way, are best left to the discrimination of observers, who will very soon discover their influences by practical trial and treat them accordingly. The employment of stops or diaphragms to contract the aperture of telescopes is a question on which a diversity of opinion has been expressed. It is often found, on nights of indifferent seeing, that the whole aperture, especially of a faulty instrument, gives bad images, and that, by reducing it, definition becomes immensely improved. But Mr. Burnham, the double star observer, records his opinion that a good glass needs no contraction, and that the whole aperture shows more than a part unless there is defective figuring at the outer zone of the lens, which will be cut off by the stop and its performance thereby greatly improved. He seems to think that a glass requiring contraction is essentially defective, but this is totally opposed to the conclusions of other observers. It is almost universally admitted that, on bad nights, the advantages of a large aperture are neutralized by unsteady definition, and that, by reducing the diameter, the character of the images is enhanced. As regards instruments of moderate calibre the necessity is less urgent. With my 10-inch reflector I rarely, if ever, employ stops, for by reducing the aperture to 8 inches the gain in definition does not sufficiently repay for the serious loss of light. But in the case of large telescopes the conservation of light is not so important, and a 14-inch or 16-inch stop may be frequently employed on an 18-inch glass with striking advantage. The theory that only defective lenses improve with contraction is fallacious, for in certain cases where stops are regularly employed it is found that, under circumstances of really good seeing, the whole aperture gives images which are as nearly perfect as possible. It is clear from this that the fault lies with the atmosphere, and that under bad conditions it becomes imperative to limit its interference consistently with the retention of sufficient light to distinguish the object well. In large reflectors, particularly, the undulations of the air are very active in destroying definition, and the fact will be patent enough to anyone who compares the images given in widely different apertures. The hard, cleanly cut disks shown by a small speculum or object-glass offer an attractive contrast to the flaring, indefinite forms often seen in big telescopes.
Cleaning Lenses.—As to wiping objectives or mirrors, this should be performed not more often than absolute necessity requires; and in any case the touches should be delicate and made with materials of very soft texture. The owner of a good objective should never take the handkerchief out of his pocket and, in order to remove a little dust or dew, rub the glass until the offensive deposit is thought to be removed. Yet this is sometimes done, though frequent repetition of such a process must ultimately ruin the best telescope notwithstanding the hardness of the crown glass forming the outer lens of the objective. It will not bear such “rough and ready” usage and in time must show some ugly scratches which will greatly affect its value though they may not seriously detract from its practical utility. Good tools deserve better treatment. When the glass really wants cleaning, remove it from the tube and sweep its whole surface gently with a dry camel’s-hair brush, or when this is not at hand get a piece of linen and “flick” off the dust particles. Then wipe the lens, as soon as these have been dislodged, with an old silk, or soft cambric handkerchief; fine chamois leather is also a good material, and soft tissue paper, aided by the breath, has been recommended. But whatever substance may be adopted it must be perfectly clean and free from dust. When not in use it should be corked up in a wide-necked bottle where it will be safe from contact with foreign particles. In the case of mirrors there is an obvious need that, when being repolished, the material used should be perfectly dry and that the mirror also should be in the same state. It is unnecessary to say here that in no case must the silver film be touched when it is clouded over with moisture. This must first be allowed to evaporate in a free current of air or before a fire; the former is to be preferred. A suitable polishing-pad may be made with a square piece of washleather or chamois in which cotton-wool is placed and then tied into a bag. This may be dipped into a little of the finest rouge, and its employment will often restore a bright surface to the mirror. But the latter should be left “severely alone” unless there is urgent occasion to repolish it, as every application of the rouged pad wears the film and may take off minute parts of it, especially when dust has not been altogether excluded. The precarious nature of the silvered surface undoubtedly constitutes the greatest disadvantage of modern reflectors. The polish on the old metallic mirrors was far more durable. Some of Short’s, figured 150 years ago, still exist and are apparently as bright as when they were turned out of the workshop! I have a 4-inch Gregorian by Watson which must be quite a century old, and both large and small specula seem to have retained their pristine condition.
With regard to the duration of the silver-on-glass films, much of course depends upon the care and means taken to preserve them. Calver says that sometimes the deposit does not last so long as expected, though he has known the same films in use for ten years. A mirror that looks badly tarnished and fit for nothing will often perform wonderfully well. With my 10-inch in a sadly deteriorated state I have obtained views of the Moon, Venus, and Jupiter that could hardly be surpassed. The moderate reflection from a tarnished mirror evidently improves the image of a bright object by eliminating the glare and allowing the fainter details to be readily seen. When not in use a tight-fitting cap should always be placed over the mirror, and if a pad of cotton wadding of the same diameter is made to inlay this cap it tends to preserve the film by absorbing much of the moisture that otherwise condenses on its surface. The ‘Hints on Reflecting-Telescopes,’ by W. H. Thornthwaite and by G. Calver, and the ‘Plea for Reflectors,’ by J. Browning, may be instructively consulted by all those who use this form of instrument. The latter work is now, however, out of print, and Mr. Browning tells me that he has quite relinquished the manufacture of reflecting-telescopes. Mr. G. With of Hereford, who formerly supplied the mirrors for his instruments, has recently disposed of his reserve stock and entered an entirely different sphere of labour. In the publications above alluded to amateurs will find a large amount of practical information on the value and treatment of glass mirrors.
Opera-Glass.—A very useful adjunct, and often a really valuable one to the astronomical amateur, is the Opera-Glass, or rather the larger form of this instrument generally known as the Field-Glass. Of certain objects it gives views which cannot be surpassed, and it is especially useful in observations of variable stars and large comets. Whenever the horizon is being scanned for a glimpse of the fugitive Mercury, or when it is desired to have a very early peep at the narrow crescent of the young Moon, or to pick up Venus at midday, or Jupiter before sunset, all one has to do is to sweep over the region where the object is situated, when it is pretty sure to be caught, and the unaided eye will probably reach it soon afterwards. The opera-glass has the dignity of being the first telescope invented, for even its binocular form is not new; it is virtually the same pattern of instrument that was introduced at Middleburg in 1609, though its compound object-glasses are of more modern date. Anyone who entertains any doubts as to the efficacy of the opera-glass or has had little experience in its use will do well to look at the Pleiades and compare the splendid aspect of that cluster, as it is there presented, with the view obtained by the naked eye, and he will acknowledge at once that it constitutes a tool without which the observer’s equipment is by no means perfect. The object-glasses should have diameters of 2 or 2½ inches, and the magnifying power lie between 4 and 6. There is a large field of view and the images are very bright. The observer is enabled to enjoy the luxury of using both his eyes, and when he directs the instrument upon a terrestrial landscape he will be gratified that it does not turn the world upside down! It is not surprising that an appliance, with recommendations so significant, is coming more into favour every day, and for those branches suitable to its means it is doing much useful work. A volume has been recently published dealing expressly with the use of the opera-glass in Astronomy; and in the ‘Journal of the L.A.S.’ vol. vii. p. 120, there is an excellent paper by Major Markwick on the same subject. This instrument will never, of course, by the nature of its construction, be comparable to a modern telescope in regard to power, for Galilei, when he augmented his magnifiers to 30, appears to have practically exhausted the resources of this appliance. But in all those departments requiring an expansive field and little power with a brilliant and distinct image, the larger form of opera-glass is a great desideratum, and its portability is not one of the least of its advantages.
Dewing of Mirrors.—The disposition of mirrors to become clouded over upon rises