Theories in Social Psychology. Группа авторов
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premise that human beings are hedonistic. The theories also assume that actions are governed by a reinforcement– punishment structure and extends into interpersonal interaction. The power dynamics of interpersonal interaction are absent from equity theory but elaborated in interdependence theory.
Denise Polk’s chapter provides a useful understanding of equity theory. The theory stems from principles of reinforcement and basic principles of economics. The basic premise of the theory is that people evaluate their relationships in terms of inputs and outcomes. The principle of distributive justice is core to equity theory (Deutsch, 1985). Imbalances in input–outcome ratios result in inequity. Two types of inequity can occur. People may be underbenefited, or they may be overbenefited. However, according to equity theory, people are driven to restore equity once they perceive inequity. When people experience inequity, they may attempt to restore actual equity or psychological equity. Polk posits that because no magic formula for equity exists, relational partners must determine equity for themselves. Equity is a key consideration in relationships because people’s perceptions about equity shape people’s feelings, decisions, and actions toward their relational partners (Adams, 1965; Sprecher & Schwartz, 1994), so equity theory is appropriate to help explain the development, maintenance, and dissolution of relationships. Polk explores research that has tested equity for links with many variables, including relational quality, personality, emotions, gender, and the distribution of domestic duties.
The chapter by Ann Rumble explores interdependence theory, as developed by John Thibaut and Harold Kelley. Thibaut and Kelley employed outcome matrices in order to understand an actor’s available behavior choices and outcomes. The given matrix represents the choices and outcomes that are available to the actors in a specific situation, and through the transformation process develops into the effective matrix (Thibaut & Kelley, 1959). By examining the components of the given and effective matrix, we will be able to explain human behavior in a number of interdependent situations, including close relationships. Interdependence theory is an important exchange theory and contributes to an understanding of the power dynamics within relationships by adopting the game-theoretic tool of outcome matrices in order to analyze an actor’s available behavior choices and outcomes.
The final part of the book is devoted to theories related to self and identity and dicusses social identity, social categorization, symbolic interactionism, and impression management.
Nils Karl Reimer, Katharina Schmid, Miles Hewstone, and Ananthi Al Ramiah’s chapter provides a general overview of social psychological theories on social identity, including social identity theory (Tajfel, 1978; Tajfel & Turner, 1979) and self-categorization theory (Turner et al., 1987). However, this chapter takes a somewhat more encompassing approach to portraying what is commonly referred to as the social identity perspective. The authors thus not only focus on identity theory and self-categorization theory but also pay particular attention to defining the concept of social identity. They consider the consequences of social identity phenomena for intergroup relations, above and beyond the predictions of social identity theory, taking into consideration the extent to which multiple categorization processes help explain intergroup relations.
The chapter is organized into five sections. The first three of which conceptually define social categorization, self-categorization and social identification, whereas the last two examine the extent to which self-categorization and social identification are involved in, and help explain, intergroup relations. The chapter describes the theoretical foundations of self-categorization theory and social categorization and provides details of what is meant by self-categorization, and how, why, and when individuals make use of social categories. Social identification is defined as a psychological process associated with group membership and is a multidimensional phenomenon. The authors give a description of social identity theory, with reference to findings that emerged from the minimal group paradigm and address, with reference to the predictions of social identity theory, the extent to which self-categorization and social identification are related to intergroup attitudes and behavior. Finally, the chapter gives an overview of multiple categorization and its consequences for intergroup relations, showing how more complex consideration of others and oneself in terms of multiple group memberships is associated with tolerance and improved intergroup relations.
Richard J. Crisp, Angela T. Maitner, and Andrew J. Marcinko’s chapter complement the previous chapter. They argue that in contemporary society the traditional boundaries that have previously defined social group memberships are being steadily eroded and replaced with more complex conceptualizations of identity. Crisp, Maitner, and Marcinko review classic and contemporary theories of social categorization in the context of increasing social and cultural diversity. They argue that broad-ranging and pervasive changes to the categorical structure of society have fundamental implications for how individuals perceive, represent, and understand their social environments. They review existing social cognitive, self-categorization, and situated cognition accounts, arguing that an increasing focus on the context-specific nature of social categorization reflects the more fluid and fluctuating nature of identity in contemporary society. The authors conceptualize a diversity-driven social categorization theory, arguing that the functional nature of human cognition implies that exposure to diversity must change how individuals psychologically engage with their social worlds. To understand fully the evolving nature of social categorization psychologists should seek to incorporate a broader multidisciplinary analysis of the changing nature of culture and society.
Andreas Schneider’s chapter is a comprehensive overview of symbolic interactionism (SI). Today the framework of symbolic interactionism has been delineated into many theoretical approaches using qualitative and quantitative methods of investigation that are applied in numerous areas of research. SI has evolved a long way from early philosophies of North American pragmatism to the computer simulation of human interaction. Describing this path, the chapter overcomes dichotomies such as the Chicago school versus the Iowa school, or quantitative versus qualitative, that have been used in the past to pigeonhole one or the other line of research. Instead, the author portrays the development from the grandfathers and their philosophical backgrounds to explain the different agendas addressed by the founding fathers of the Chicago school. This historical context is necessary to understand contemporary contrasting schools of thought and their roots in social psychology, as well as sociology. This chapter then shows how ideas and methodologies of these qualitative and quantitative approaches are integrated into the most recent development of cybernetic control models in SI. Finally, the author discusses the application of SI in the fields of deviance, sexuality, children, gender, emotions, organization/management, cross-cultural comparison, and ethnomethodology/conversation analysis. Descriptions of these applications are supported by interviews of key researchers in the respective fields.
Meni Koslowsky, Shani Pindek, and Abira Reizer’s chapter on impression management (IM) is a refreshing contribution to the literature. They note that IM is an activity that takes place in many, if not most, interactions. In this chapter, they start by exploring the different definitions of the construct, from a narrow view of IM as a set of manipulative behaviors, performed mainly in order to present one self in a positive light, to a more expansive definition which assumes that all people unconsciously manage their impressions in ways that assist in achieving goals both at the individual and group levels. This expansive view of IM allows for an appreciation of the relationship between IM and constructs such as the self-concept, individuals’ social identities, and other social phenomena.
When applying or measuring IM, behaviors are usually considered as belonging to one of several distinct subcategories. These categories include verbal/nonverbal behaviors, defensive/promotional, positive/negative, and several other related taxonomies. The chapter also explores specific antecedents and outcomes of IM including gender, self-monitoring, and self-regulation, as well as other demographic and personality variables. The work environment supplies the individual with many incentives as well as opportunities to benefit from impressions that are well managed, The workspace has been the focus of much of IM research in recent years. Finally, the authors identify several areas for future researchers to consider.
This latest edition of Theories in Social Psychology provides an updated comprehensive understanding of important social psychological theories that have persisted, so far, in the