A Companion to Global Gender History. Группа авторов
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exploitation on the job to a far greater extent than in Western industrialized countries, due to the absence of state controls and labor legislation (Bradshaw and Wallace, 1996). Likewise, the practice of providing small loans (microfinancing) to women in India, Bangladesh, and African countries, touted as a road to economic independence, has been subject to intense debate since it often creates indebtedness. In some cases, it so rapidly disrupts traditional gender norms that female entrepreneurs have been attacked, even killed, as punishment for their “success” (Yeboah, Arhin, Kumi, and Owusu, 2014).
In other settings, global labor markets benefit from the migration of desperately poor rural women to work in the sex trade, as in Thailand, where the recruitment of Burmese, Vietnamese, Cambodian, and Laotian women and girls is a product of economic inequality and indebtedness in the region. Although prostitution is indeed one of the oldest occupations, the commercialization and commodification of sex for tourism occurred to an unprecedented extent by the end of the twentieth century (Human Rights Watch, 1993). In these cases, under late capitalism, states either have been facilitators or complicit in maintaining gender exploitation in developing economies. Elsewhere women from Latin America, Haiti, and the Philippines who migrate to the United States constitute a steady labor supply for domestic service and nursing (Chang, 2000; Sasson, 1998).
Despite these inequalities and forms of exploitation, it is undeniable that under late capitalism, the interventions of states, human rights organizations and non‐governmental organizations (NGOs) have also worked to mitigate such conditions. Equal pay and affirmative action legislation in the United States, the gender equality legislation of the European Union, and conventions of the International Labor Organization have lessened gender discrimination at work in many parts of the world. On the other hand, the adoption of legislation does not mean enforcement. For example, South Africa has probably the most gender‐equal constitution of any nation, but enforcement of the law to ensure women’s rights has been slow in coming.
Conclusion
Over the centuries, cultural perceptions of sex difference have been critical in shaping the experience of virtually all forms of labor. Indeed, striking continuities in gender divisions and inequalities have developed in extremely diverse parts of the world. Although both women and men have performed economic roles crucial to the survival of their families, communities, and states, men’s access to certain forms of labor has been privileged and protected; women’s opportunities have been far more circumscribed. Even when men and women have labored at the same work, employers have valued women’s labor less than men’s work. Many historians believe that the growing complexity and bureaucratization of societies, the emergence of centralized states, and the expansion of capitalist production together constituted the major factors accounting for the development and persistence of the gender division of labor and resulting gender inequality. But growing structural complexity does not explain all. Gender discourses, religion, and the law, as well as overlapping ideas about race and class, have also been critical in shaping these divisions and in perpetuating unequal relations of power between laboring women and men over much of the world.
BIBLIOGRAPHY AND FURTHER READING
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