A Companion to Global Gender History. Группа авторов
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families. To this variety are added households in which children are being raised by grandparents, by gay, lesbian, and transsexual individuals and couples, by adoptive parents, by single parents (most often the mother), and by unmarried couples who have no intention of marrying. Statistics from the US provide evidence of all these trends: in 2013, 15 percent of new marriages were mixed race, 19 percent of households consisted of a married couple and their children, 51 percent of adults were married (down from 72 percent in 1960), and 41 percent of children were born to unmarried women.
Thus the question “what is a family?” has many answers.
BIBLIOGRAPHY AND FURTHER READING
1 Allen Nicolas J. et al., eds. (2008) Early Human Kinship: From Sex to Social Reproduction. Oxford: Wiley‐Blackwell.
2 Blumberg, Rae Lesser, ed. (1991) Gender, Family and Economy: The Triple Overlap. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
3 Brown, Kathleen (1996) Good Wives, Nasty Wenches and Anxious Patriarchs: Gender, Race, and Power in Colonial Virginia. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.
4 Burguière, André, et al., eds. (1996) A History of the Family: Volume One – Distant Worlds, Ancient Worlds and A History of the Family: Volume Two – The Impact of Modernity. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
5 Casey, James (1989) The History of the Family. London: Basil Blackwell.
6 Cole, Jennifer and Durham, Deborah Lynn, eds. (2007) Generations and Globalization: Youth, Age, and Family in the New World Economy. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
7 Davison, Jean (1997) Gender, Lineage, and Ethnicity in Southern Africa. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
8 Dore, Elizabeth (2006) Myths of Modernity: Peonage and Patriarchy in Nicaragua. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.
9 Forster, Marc and Kaplan, Benjamin J., eds. (2005) Piety and Family in Early Modern Europe. Basingstoke: Ashgate.
10 Ghosh, Durba (2008) Sex and the Family in Colonial India: The Making of Empire. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
11 Gillis, John R. (1996) A World of Their Own Making: Myth, Ritual and the Quest for Family Values. New York: Basic Books.
12 Goody, Jack (2000) The European Family: An Historico‐Anthropological Essay. Oxford: Blackwell.
13 Hrdy, Sarah Blaffer (2009) Mothers and Others: The Evolutionary Origins of Mutual Understanding. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
14 Jelin, Elizabeth, ed. (1991) Family, Household, and Gender Relations in Latin America. London: Routledge.
15 Johnson, Allen and Earle, Timothy (2000) The Evolution of Human Societies: From Foraging Group to Agrarian State. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
16 Jolly, Margaret and Macintyre, Martha, eds. (1989) Family and Gender in the Pacific: Domestic Contradictions and the Colonial Impact. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
17 Kertzer, David I. and Barbagli, Marzio, eds. (2001) Family Life in Early Modern Times, 1500–1789 (The History of the European Family, vol. 1). New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
18 Laslett, Peter and Wall, Richard, eds. (1983) Household and Family in Past Time. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
19 Lavrin, Asunción, ed. (1989) Sexuality and Marriage in Colonial Latin America. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.
20 Mangan, Jane E. (2016) Transatlantic Obligations: Creating the Bonds of Family in Conquest‐era Peru and Spain. New York: Oxford University Press.
21 Maynes, Mary Jo, Waltner, Ann, Soland, Birgitte, and Strassereds, Ulrike (1996) Gender, Kinship, Power: A Comparative and Interdisciplinary History. New York: Routledge.
22 Maynes, Mary Jo and Waltner, Ann (2012) The Family: A World History. New York: Oxford.
23 Meriwether, Margaret and Tucker, Judith, eds. (1999) A Social History of Women and the Family in the Middle East. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
24 Mintz, Steven and Kellogg, Susan (1988) Domestic Revolutions: A Social History of American Family Life. New York: Free Press.
25 Quale, G. Robina (1992) Families in Context: A World History of Population. New York: Greenwood.
26 Palmer, Jennifer L. (2016) Intimate Bonds: Family and Slavery in the French Atlantic. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
27 Phillips, Roderick (1988) Putting Asunder: A History of Divorce in Western Society. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
28 Pomeroy, Sarah (1997) Families in Classical and Hellenistic Greece: Representations and Realities. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
29 Seccombe, Wally (1992) A Millennium of Family Change: Feudalism to Capitalism in Northwestern Europe. London: Verso.
30 Twinam, Ann (1999) Public Lives, Private Secrets: Gender, Honor, Sexuality, and Illegitimacy in Colonial Spanish America. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
31 Watson, Rubie S. and Ebrey, Patricia Buckley (1991) Marriage and Inequality in Chinese Society. Berkeley: University of California Press.
32 Wiesner‐Hanks, Merry E. (2020) Christianity and Sexuality in the Early Modern World: Regulating Desire, Reforming Practice. 3rd edition, London: Routledge.
Chapter Four The Construction of Gendered Identities in Myth and Ritual
Darlene M. Juschka
Introduction
This chapter investigates how gender ideology and gendered identities are given materiality in ritual and myth. I use “myth” and “mythology” to mean meaningful narratives for those who adhere to the myth, rather than untruth or superstition. I also do not take myth to be the opposite of history, as both are narratives by which truth is seen to be disseminated. In this I follow Hayden White (1987). Gender ideology and its performance mark the boundaries for, and of, imagined communities (Anderson, 2006), while imagined flesh made material in genitals comprises the somatic canvas upon which gender ideology is marked, defined, and performed. The matter of flesh within the imaginary system of human knowing “stabilizes over time to produce the effect of boundary, fixity, and surface” (Butler, 1993: 9). The marking, defining, and performing of gender ideology and gendering are deployed through and enacted in the media of ritual and myth. I use the term “media” in the sense of sites for the public dissemination and circulation of information, knowledge, and truths. In critical theory, from within which I work, media are the means and ways that meaning is inscribed and messages sent. Ritual and myth are the ordering systems, the media, through which signals and signs are sent (Morley, 2005: 214).
Deployment and enactment in these kinds of media give biological, social, and metaphysical credence to gender ideologies and their performance. Equally, flesh marked by gender can also be further marked by any one or more of: indigeneity, race, age, geopolitical location, ablebodiedness, and sexuality. Such multiple markings play out in terms of what black and poststructural feminists refer to as intersectionality (Collins and Bilge, 2016; May, 2015; Lutz, Vivar, and Supik, 2011; Crenshaw, 1991; see also Chapter 6 by Keenan in this volume). By examining the imaginative development of gender ideology and its performance as acquired, maintained, and idealized through these media, critical theorists are better able to comprehend, chart, weigh, and interrupt gender ideology.
To critically engage gender ideology in this chapter, I discuss rites and myths of circumcision to make visible how the media of ritual and myth are central to the construction and maintenance of gender ideology. Both female and male circumcision are highly contested practices (Ahmadu, 2000; Gollaher, 2000; Knight 2001; Shear, Hart, and Diekema, 2012; Theisen, 2012; Wambura, 2018; Wyatt, 2009; see also Chapter 33 by Redding in this volume). For the purposes of