Microaggressions in Everyday Life. Derald Wing Sue
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has begun to examine “queer blindness” (see Smith & Shin, 2014). For example, Spengler, Miller, and Spengler (2016) described how therapists' avoidance of sexual‐minority issues during sessions may inadvertently invalidate clients' experiences.
Denial of individual racism/sexism/heterosexism. Related to the previous theme is another form of denial that involves an individual denial of personal racism, sexism, or heterosexism. Statements such as “I'm not homophobic, I have a gay friend,” “I have nothing against interracial marriages, but I worry about the children,” and “As an employer I treat all men and women equally” may possess the following hidden messages: “I am immune to heterosexism,” “The only reason I have hesitations about interracial relationships is concern about the offspring and it has nothing to do with personal bias,” and “I never discriminate against women.” When such statements are made to a person of color, for example, they may deny individuals' lived experiences. In an analysis of weblog data regarding the discontinuation of the racist mascot at the University of Illinois, Clark and his colleagues (2011) found evidence for denial of individual and institutional forms of racism that negated the thoughts, feelings, and experiences of Native American peoples.
Myth of meritocracy. Linked closely to color‐blind ideology (see Neville et al., 2013), the myth of meritocracy is a theme that asserts that race, gender, and sexual orientation do not play a role in life successes. It assumes that all groups have an equal opportunity to succeed and that we operate on a level playing field. Thus, success and failure are attributed to individual characteristics like intelligence, hard work, motivation, and family values. When people do well, they are considered to have achieved their success through individual effort. The flip side of the coin is those who do not succeed are also seen as possessing individual deficiencies (lazy, low intellect, etc.) (Jones, 1997). In the case of persons of color, there is little recognition that higher unemployment rates, lower educational achievement, and poverty may be the result of systemic forces (individual, institutional, and societal racism). Blaming the victim is the outcome of the myth of meritocracy. Statements made to marginalized groups may be reflected in these comments: “Everyone has an equal chance in this society,” “The cream of the crop rises to the top,” “Everyone can succeed if they work hard enough,” and “Affirmative action is reverse racism.” These statements potentially imply that racism, sexism, and heterosexism are of little importance in a group's or individual's success.
Drawing on nearly 100 empirical studies, Houshmand, Spanierman, and DeStefano (2017) constructed three categories to organize microaggressive themes related to race and ethnicity. Specifically, they identified: (a) pathologizing differences, (b) excluding and rendering people of color invisible, and (c) perpetuating color‐blind racial attitudes. We add a fourth category: (d) using stereotypes to denigrate and pigeonhole, documented across a number of qualitative studies. Pathologizing differences and using stereotypes most closely align with microinsults, whereas the other two categories align with microinvalidations.
Microaggressions, whether they fall into the category of microassaults, microinsults, or microinvalidations, are detrimental to the well‐being and standard of living of members of marginalized groups in our society. And, as we discussed, the subtlest forms may inflict the greatest harm through their frequency and ambiguity. In Chapter 3 we turn to a discussion and analysis of the psychological dilemmas created by microaggressions and attempt to describe the psychological and internal processes of both recipients and unintentional perpetrators.
The Way Forward
Defining, Recognizing, and Deconstructing Hidden Messages in Microaggressions
Microaggressions are a constant and continuing reality for people of color, women, and LGBTQ individuals in our society. They hold their power over perpetrators and targets because of their everyday, invisible nature. In many respects, all of us have been both perpetrators and targets. With respect to the former, we have been guilty of having delivered microaggressions, whether they are based on race, gender, sexual orientation, ability, religion, or social class. Microaggressions are harmful to people from marginalized groups because they cause psychological distress and reinforce and reproduce disparities in health care, employment, and education. The first steps in overcoming racial, gender, sexual‐orientation, and other forms of microaggressions involve:
1 Defining microaggressions. Microaggressions can be overt or covert, but they are most damaging when they occur outside the level of the conscious awareness of well‐intentioned perpetrators. Most of us can recognize and define overt forms of bias and discrimination and will actively condemn such actions. However, the “invisible” manifestations are not under conscious awareness and control, so they occur spontaneously without any checks and balances in personal, social, and work‐related interactions. They can occur among and between family members, neighbors, and coworkers and in teacher–student, health care provider–patient, therapist–client, and employer–employee relationships. They are numerous and continuous and have a detrimental impact on targets. To define microaggressions and to know the various forms they take, one must begin with a cognitive and intellectual understanding of their manifestations and impact. It is our hope the taxonomy described in this chapter will provide readers with a template that facilitates understanding of the concrete characteristics and qualities of microaggressions.
2 Recognizing microaggressions. Being able to define racial, gender, sexual‐orientation, and other forms of microaggressions is not enough. Recognizing microaggressions when they make their appearance is more than an intellectual exercise. Their manifestations are dynamic, with very real personal consequences that can be ameliorated only when recognized in their interactional or environmental forms. Appropriate intervention can occur only when microaggressions are recognized in the here and now. Recognition may involve two different situations: (a) when they are observed as occurring between external parties (delivered by others), and (b) when you are one of the actors involved (perpetrator or target). When you observe a microaggression being delivered by someone else, the possibility of intervention may present a personal or professional dilemma: “Should I or shouldn't I intervene? If I do, what is the most appropriate way to do so? What are the consequences if I choose to take action?” The second situation involves you as either target or perpetrator. We spend considerable time in future chapters analyzing target impact and response issues as well as strategies for coping with and resisting microaggressions. We also introduce a new concept for targets, allies, and bystanders that we refer to as microinterventions. More important, however, is your recognition that perhaps you have engaged in or now are personally engaging in the delivery of microaggressions. Self‐monitoring, being open to exploring the possibility that you have acted in a biased fashion, and remaining nondefensive are crucial to recognizing when you have been guilty of delivering a microaggression.
3 Deconstructing the hidden meaning of microaggressions. Microaggressions are reflections of worldviews that are filled with ethnocentric values, biases, assumptions, and stereotypes that have been strongly culturally inculcated into our beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors. Microaggressions usually send double messages that are contradictory to one another. A common microaggression directed toward people of color and women is symbolized in this statement: “I believe the most qualified person should be offered the job.” Although few of us would disagree with this statement, in certain contexts, when it is made to a devalued group member by a majority person, there may be a hidden message: “Racial minorities and White women generally are not qualified, so don’t blame me of being biased when the job is offered to a White man.”
Being able to define and recognize microaggressions and being able to deconstruct the metacommunications are challenging goals. They are the necessary preconditions to effective interventions, whether in personal or in professional settings. Only when awareness is present can action be taken in education, training, or remediation to overcome racial, gender, sexual‐orientation, and other forms of microaggressions.
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