1 1. Up to 345°C (650°F), 85% magnesia is used.

      2 2. Up to 870–1040°C (1600–1900°F), a mixture of asbestos and diatomaceous earth is used.

      3 3. Ceramic refractories at higher temperatures.

      4 4. Cryogenic equipment −130°C (−200°F) employs insulations with fine pores of trapped air, for example, PerliteTM.

      5 5. Optimum thickness varies with temperature: 12.7 mm (0.5 in.) at 95°C (200°F), 25.4 mm (1.0 in.) at 200°C (400°F), 32 mm (1.25 in.) at 315°C (600°F).

      6 6. Under windy conditions, 12.1 km/h (7.5 miles/h), 10–20% greater thickness of insulation is justified.

      1 1. Mild agitation is obtained by circulating the liquid with an impeller at superficial velocities of 30.48–60.9 mm/s (0.1–0.2 ft/s), and intense agitation at 213.4–304.8 mm/s (0.7–1.0 ft/s).

      2 2. Intensities of agitation with impellers in baffled tanks are measured by power input, hp/1000 gal., and impeller tip speeds:Operationhp/1000 gal.Tip speed (ft/min)Tip speed (m/s)Blending0.2–0.5Homogeneous reaction0.5–1.57.5–100.038–0.051Reaction with heat transfer1.5–5.010–150.051–0.076Liquid–liquid mixtures515–200.076–0.10Liquid–gas mixtures5–1015–200.076–0.10Slurries10

      3 3. Proportions of a stirred tank relative to the diameter D: liquid level = D; turbine impeller diameter = D/3; impeller level above bottom = D/3; impeller blade width = D/15; four vertical baffles with width = D/10.

      4 4. Propellers are made with a maximum of 457.2-mm (18-in.) turbine impellers to 2.74 m (9 ft).

      5 5. Gas bubbles sparged at the bottom of the vessel will result in mild agitation at a superficial gas velocity of 0.0051 m/s (1 ft/min), severe agitation at 0.02 m/s (4 ft/min).

      6 6. Suspension of solids with a settling velocity of 0.009 m/s (0.03 ft/s) is accomplished with either turbine or propeller impellers, but when the settling velocity is above 0.05 m/s (0.15 ft/s) intense agitation with a propeller is needed.

      7 7. Power to drive a mixture of a gas and a liquid can be 25–50% less than the power to drive the liquid alone.

      8 8. In-line blenders are adequate when a second contact time is sufficient, with power inputs of 0.1–0.2 hp/gal.

      1 1. The chief methods of particle size enlargement are compression into a mold, extrusion through a die followed by cutting or breaking to size, globulation of molten material followed by solidification, agglomeration under tumbling or otherwise agitated conditions with or without binding agents.

      2 2. Rotating drum granulators have length-to-diameter ratios of 2–3, speeds 10–20 rpm, pitch as much as 10°. Size is controlled by speed, residence time, and amount of binder; 2–5 mm diameter is common.

      3 3. Rotary disk granulators produce a more nearly uniform product than drum granulators: fertilizer, 1.5–3.5 mm diameter; iron ore 10–25 mm diameter.

      4 4. Roll compacting and briquetting is done with rolls ranging from 130 mm diameter by 50 mm wide to 910 mm diameter by 550 mm wide. Extrudates are made 1–10 mm thick and are broken down to size for any needed processing, such as feed to tableting machines or to dryers.

      5 5. Tablets are made in rotary compression machines that convert powders and granules into uniform sizes. The usual maximum diameter is about 38.1 mm (1.5 in.), but special sizes up to 101.6 mm (4 in.) diameter are possible. Machines operate at 100 rpm or so and make up to 10,000 tablets/min.

      6 6. Extruders make pellets by forcing powders, pastes, and melts through a die followed by cutting. A 203.2-mm (8-in.) screw has a capacity of 907.2 kg/h (2000 lb/h) of molten plastic and is able to extrude tubing at 0.76–1.52 m/s (150–300 ft/min) and to cut it into sizes as small as washers at 8000/min. Ring pellet extrusion mills have hole diameters of 1.6–32 mm. Production rates are in the range of 30–200 lb/h-hp.

      7 7. Prilling towers convert molten materials into droplets and allow them to solidify in contact with an air stream. Towers as high as 60 m (196.9 ft) are used. Economically the process becomes competitive with other granulation processes when a capacity of 200–400 tons/day is reached. Ammonium nitrate prills, for example, are 1.6–3.5 mm diameter in the 5–95% range.

      8 8. Fluidized bed granulation is conducted in shallow beds 304.8–609.6 mm (12–24 in.) deep at air velocities of 0.1–2.5 m/s or 3–10 times the minimum fluidizing velocity, with evaporation rates of 0.005–1.0 kg/m2s. One product has a size range 0.7–2.4 mm diameter.

      1 1. Line velocities (υ) and pressure drops (∆P): (a) For a liquid pump discharge, υ = (5 + D/3) ft/s and ∆P = 0.45 bar/100 m (2.0 psi/100 ft); (b) For liquid pump suction, υ = (1.3 + D/6) ft/s, ∆P = 0.09 bar/100 m (0.4 psi/100 ft); (c) for steam or gas flow: υ = 20D ft/s and ∆P = 0.113 bar/100m (0.5 psi/100 ft), D = diameter of pipe in inches.

      2 2. Gas/steam line velocities = 61 m/s (200 ft/s) and pressure drop = 0.1 bar/100 m (0.5 psi/100 ft).

      3 3. In preliminary estimates set line pressure drops for an equivalent length of 30.5 m (100 ft) of pipe between each of piece of equipment.

      4 4. Control valves require at least 0.69 bar (10 psi) pressure drop for good control.

      5 5. Globe valves are used for gases, control and wherever tight shut-off is required. Gate valves are for most other services.

      6 6. Screwed fittings are used only on sizes 38 mm (1.5 in) or less, flanges or welding used otherwise.

      7 7. Flanges and fittings are rated for 10, 20, 40, 103, 175 bar (150, 300, 600, 900, 1500, or 2500 psig).

      8 8. Approximate schedule number required = 1000 P/S, where P is the internal pressure psig and S is the allowable working stress [about 690 bar (10,000 psi)] for A120 carbon steel at 260°C (500°F). Schedule (Sch.) 40 is most common.

      1 1. Power for pumping liquids: kW = (1.67) [Flow (m3/min)] [∆P(bar)]/ε[hp = Flow (gpm) ∆P (psi)/(1, 714)(ε)]. (ε = fractional efficiency).

      2 2. Net positive suction head (NPSH) of a pump must be in excess of a certain number, depending upon the kind of pumps and the conditions, if damage is to be avoided. NPSH = (pressure at the eye of the impeller-vapor pressure)/(ρg). Common range is 1.2–6.1 m (4–20