The Tax Law of Charitable Giving. Bruce R. Hopkins
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The institutions of society within the United States are generally classified as governmental, for-profit, or nonprofit entities. These three sectors of society are seen as critical for a democratic state—or, as it is sometimes termed, a civil society. Governmental entities are the branches, departments, agencies, and bureaus of the federal, state, and local governments. For-profit entities constitute the business sector of this society. Nonprofit organizations, as noted, constitute what is frequently termed the third sector, the voluntary sector, the private sector, or the independent sector of U.S. society. These terms are sometimes confusing; for example, the term private sector has been applied to both the for-profit sector and the nonprofit sector.
The rules concerning the creation of nonprofit organizations are essentially a subject for state law. Although a few nonprofit organizations are chartered by the U.S. Congress, most are incorporated or otherwise formed under state law. There is a substantive difference between nonprofit and tax-exempt organizations. While almost all tax-exempt organizations are nonprofit organizations, there are types of nonprofit organizations that are not tax-exempt. There is considerable confusion as to what the term nonprofit means—but it certainly does not mean that the organization cannot earn a profit (excess of revenue over expenses). The essential difference between a nonprofit organization and a for-profit organization, from a law standpoint, is found in the private inurement doctrine.8
The concept of a nonprofit organization is best understood through a comparison with a for-profit organization. In many respects, the characteristics of the two categories of organizations are identical: both require a legal form, have a board of directors and officers, pay compensation, face essentially the same expenses, make investments, produce goods and/or services, and are able to receive a profit.
A for-profit entity, however, has owners: those who hold the equity in the enterprise, such as stockholders of a corporation. The for-profit organization is operated for the benefit of its owners; the profits of the enterprise are passed through to them, such as the payment of dividends on shares of stock. This is what is meant by the term for-profit organization; it is one that is intended to generate a profit for its owners. The transfer of the profits from the organization to its owners is considered the inurement of net earnings to the owners in their private capacity.
Unlike the for-profit entity, the nonprofit organization generally is not permitted to distribute its profits (net earnings) to those who control and/or financially support it; a nonprofit organization usually does not have any owners (equity holders).9 Consequently, the private inurement doctrine is the substantive dividing line that differentiates, for law purposes, nonprofit organizations and for-profit organizations.
Thus, both nonprofit organizations and for-profit organizations are able to generate a profit. The distinction between the two entities pivots on what is done with this profit.10 The for-profit organization endeavors to produce a profit for what one commentator called its “residual claimants.”11 The nonprofit organization usually seeks to make that profit work for some end that is beneficial to society.
The private inurement doctrine is applicable to many types of tax-exempt organizations. It is, however, most pronounced with respect to charitable organizations.12 By contrast, in some types of nonprofit (and tax-exempt) organizations, the provision of forms of private benefit is the exempt purpose and function. This is the case, for example, with employee benefit trusts, social clubs, and, to an extent, political committees.13
As this chapter has indicated thus far, there are subsets and sub-subsets within the nonprofit sector. Tax-exempt organizations are subsets of nonprofit organizations. Charitable organizations (using the broad definition of that term14) are subsets of tax-exempt organizations. Charitable organizations in the narrow sense are subsets of charitable organizations in the broader sense of that term.15
These elements of the nonprofit sector may be visualized as a series of concentric circles, as shown below.
For a variety of reasons, the organizations constituting the nation's independent sector have been granted exemption from federal and state taxation; in some instances, they have been accorded the status of entities contributions to which are tax-deductible under federal and state tax law. Federal, state, and usually local law provide exemptions from income tax for (and, where appropriate, deductibility of contributions to) a wide variety of organizations, including churches, colleges, universities, health care providers, various charities, civic leagues, labor unions, trade associations, social clubs, political organizations, veterans' groups, fraternal organizations, and certain cooperatives. Yet, despite the longevity of most of these exemptions, the underlying rationale for them is vague and varying. Nonetheless, the rationales for exemption appear to be long-standing public policy, inherent tax theory, and unique and specific reasons giving rise to a particular tax provision.
§ 1.3 CHARITABLE ORGANIZATIONS LAW PHILOSOPHY
The definition in the law of the term nonprofit organization and the concept of the nonprofit sector as critical to the creation and functioning of a civil society do not distinguish nonprofit organizations that are tax-exempt from those that are not. This is because the tax aspect of nonprofit organizations is not relevant to either subject. Indeed, rather than defining either the term nonprofit organization or its societal role, the federal tax law principles respecting tax exemption of these entities reflect and flow out of the essence of these subjects.
This is somewhat unusual; most tax laws are based on some form of rationale that is inherent in tax policy. The law of charitable and other tax-exempt organizations, however, has very little to do with any underlying tax policy. Rather, this aspect of the tax law is grounded in a body of thought quite distant from tax policy: political philosophy as to the proper construct of a democratic society.
This raises, then, the matter of the rationale for tax-exemption eligibility of nonprofit organizations. That is, what is the fundamental characteristic—or characteristics—that enables a nonprofit organization to qualify as a tax-exempt organization? In fact, there is no single qualifying feature. This circumstance mirrors the fact that the present-day statutory tax exemption rules are not the product of a carefully formulated plan. Rather, they are a hodgepodge of federal statutory law that has evolved over nearly 100 years, as various Congresses have deleted from (infrequently) and added to (frequently) the roster of exempt entities, causing it to grow substantially over the decades. As one observer wrote, the various categories of tax-exempt organizations “are not the result of any planned legislative scheme” but were enacted over the decades “by a variety of legislators for a variety of reasons.”16
There are six basic rationales underlying qualification for tax-exempt status for nonprofit organizations. On a simplistic plane, a nonprofit entity is tax-exempt because Congress wrote a provision in the Internal Revenue Code according tax exemption to it. Thus, some organizations are tax-exempt for no more engaging reason than that Congress said so. Certainly, as to this type of exemption, there is no grand philosophical principle buttressing the exemption.
Some of the federal income tax exemptions were enacted in the spirit of being merely declaratory of, or furthering, then-existing law. The House Committee on Ways and Means, in