The Tax Law of Charitable Giving. Bruce R. Hopkins
Читать онлайн книгу.
of what members of Congress had in mind when they first started creating categories of charitable and other tax-exempt organizations. Congress, it is generally assumed, saw itself doing what other legislative bodies have done over the centuries. One observer stated that the “history of mankind reflects that our early legislators were not setting precedent by exempting religious or charitable organizations” from income tax.24 That is, the political philosophical policy considerations pertaining to nonprofit organizations were such that taxation of these entities—considering their contributions to the well-being and functioning of society—was unthinkable.
Thus, in the process of writing the Revenue Act of 1913, Congress viewed tax exemption for charitable organizations as the only way to consistently correlate tax policy to political theory on the point, and saw the exemption of charities in the federal tax statutes as an extension of comparable practice throughout the whole of history. No legislative history enlarges upon the point. Presumably, Congress simply believed that these organizations ought not to be taxed and found the proposition sufficiently obvious that extensive explanation of its actions was not required.
Some clues are found in the definition of charitable activities in the income tax regulations,25 which are thought to reflect congressional intent. The regulations refer to purposes such as relief of the poor, advancement of education and science, erection and maintenance of public buildings, and lessening of the burdens of government. These definitions of charitable undertakings clearly derive from the Preamble to the Statute of Charitable Uses,26 written in England in 1601. Reference is there made to certain “charitable” purposes:
some for relief of aged, impotent and poor people, some for maintenance of sick and maimed soldiers and mariners, schools of learning, free schools, and scholars in universities, some for repair of bridges, ports, havens, cause-ways, churches, seabanks and highways, some for education and preferment of orphans, some for or towards relief, stock or maintenance for houses of correction, some for marriages of poor maids, some for supportation, aid and help of young tradesmen, handicraftsmen and persons decayed, and others for relief of redemption of prisoners or captives. . . .
As this indicates, a subset of the public policy doctrine implies that tax exemption for charitable organizations derives from the concept that they perform functions that, in the absence of these organizations, government would have to perform. This view leads to the conclusion that government is willing to forgo the tax revenues it would otherwise receive in return for the public interest services rendered by charitable organizations.
Since the founding of the United States and beforehand in the Colonial period, tax exemption—particularly with respect to religious organizations—was common.27 Churches were uniformly spared taxation.28 This practice has been sustained throughout the history of the nation—not only at the federal level, but also at the state and local levels of government, which grant property tax exemptions, as an example.
The Supreme Court concluded, soon after enactment of the income tax, that the foregoing rationalization was the basis for the federal tax exemption for charitable entities (although in doing so it reflected a degree of uncertainty in the strength of its reasoning, undoubtedly based on the paucity of legislative history). In 1924, the Court stated that “[e]vidently the exemption is made in recognition of the benefit which the public derives from corporate activities of the class named, and is intended to aid them when [they are] not conducted for private gain.”29 Nearly 50 years later, in upholding the constitutionality of income tax exemption for religious organizations, the Court observed that the “State has an affirmative policy that considers these groups as beneficial and stabilizing influences in community life and finds this classification [tax exemption] useful, desirable, and in the public interest.”30 Subsequently, the Court wrote that, for most categories of nonprofit organizations, “exemption from federal income tax is intended to encourage the provision of services that are deemed socially beneficial.”31
A few other courts have taken up this theme. One federal court of appeals wrote that the “reason underlying the exemption granted” to charitable organizations is that “the exempted taxpayer performs a public service.”32 This court continued:
The common element of charitable purposes within the meaning of the . . . [federal tax law] is the relief of the public of a burden which otherwise belongs to it. Charitable purposes are those which benefit the community by relieving it pro tanto from an obligation which it owes to the objects of the charity as members of the community.33
This federal appellate court subsequently observed, as respects the exemption for charitable organizations, that “[o]ne stated reason for a deduction or exemption of this kind is that the favored entity performs a public service and benefits the public or relieves it of a burden which otherwise belongs to it.”34 Another federal court opined that the justification of the charitable contribution deduction was “historically . . . that by doing so, the Government relieves itself of the burden of meeting public needs which in the absence of charitable activity would fall on the shoulders of the Government.”35
Only one federal court has fully articulated the public policy doctrine, even there noting that the “very purpose” of the charitable contribution deduction “is rooted in helping institutions because they serve the public good.”36 The doctrine was explained as follows:
[A]s to private philanthropy, the promotion of a healthy pluralism is often viewed as a prime social benefit of general significance. In other words, society can be seen as benefiting not only from the application of private wealth to specific purposes in the public interest but also from the variety of choices made by individual philanthropists as to which activities to subsidize. This decentralized choice-making is arguably more efficient and responsive to public needs than the cumbersome and less flexible allocation process of government administration.37
Occasionally, Congress issues a pronouncement on this subject. One of these rare instances occurred in 1939, when the report of the House Committee on Ways and Means, part of the legislative history of the Revenue Act of 1938, stated:
The exemption from taxation of money or property devoted to charitable and other purposes is based upon the theory that the government is compensated for the loss of revenue by its relief from financial burden which would otherwise have to be met by appropriations from public funds, and by the benefits resulting from the promotion of the general welfare.38
The doctrine also is referenced from time to time in testimony before a congressional committee. For example, the Secretary of the Treasury testified before the House Committee on Ways and Means in 1973 regarding organizations that he termed “voluntary charities, which depend heavily on gifts and bequests,” observing:
These organizations are an important influence for diversity and a bulwark against over-reliance on big government. The tax privileges extended to these institutions were purged of abuse in 1969 and we believe the existing deductions