Handbook of Ecological and Ecosystem Engineering. Группа авторов
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mangrove forests
Table 1.3 Indicators for the valuation of provisioning ecosystem services.
| Provisioning Service | Low (1) | Medium (2) | High (3) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Natural food production | Absence of activities such as fisheries, shellfish gathering, or gathering wild plants | Occurrence ofat least one activity (i.e. fisheries, shellfish gathering or gathering wild plants) | Occurrence of more than one activity (i.e. fisheries, shellfish gathering or gathering wild plants) |
| Food production in farmed areas | Absence of activities such as crops, animal breeding, fish farming, etc. | Occurrence of at least one activity (i.e. crops, animal breeding, fish farming, etc.) | Occurrence of more than one activity (i.e. crops, animal breeding, fish farming, etc.) |
| Water resources | Absence of surface water bodies or aquifers | Occurrence of at least one source of water (i.e. surface water bodies or aquifers) | Occurrence of more than one source of water (i.e. surface water bodies or aquifers) |
| Ornamental resources | Absence of ornamental resources (i.e. deadwood, oysters, plants, fish, rocks, minerals) | Occurrence of at least one ornamental resource (i.e. deadwood, oysters, plants, fish, rocks, minerals) | Occurrence of more than one ornamental resource (i.e. deadwood, oysters, plants, fish, rocks, minerals) |
| Genetic resources | Occurrence of anthropized areas, pastures, or monocultures | Occurrence of restinga or agroforestry systems | Occurrence of forests, coral reefs, estuaries, or mangrove forests |
Table 1.4 Indicators for the valuation of information and cultural ecosystem services.
| Information and cultural service | Low (1) | Medium (2) | High (3) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Ecotourism | Absence of locations with quality for ecotourism, such as hiking and diving | Occurrence of at least one location with quality for ecotourism, such as hiking and diving | Occurrence of more than one location with quality for ecotourism, such as hiking and diving |
| Historical/cultural tourism | Absence of buildings or areas with known historical value | Occurrence of at least one building or area with known historical value | Occurrence of more than one building or area with known historical value |
| Recreation and leisure | Low recreational quality | Medium recreational quality | High recreational quality |
| Scenic quality | Absence of natural attractions (e.g. cliffs) | Occurrence of at least one natural attraction (e.g. cliffs) | Occurrence of more than one natural attraction (e.g. cliffs) |
Primary information collected by methodologies such as the ones applied by Santos and Silva [33], Seppelt et al. [35], and Souza et al. [34] is essential to enable researchers to perform environmental mapping and modeling. Chan and Ruckelshaus [37] reported efforts to map and model ecosystem services, such as the Multiscale Integrated Models of Ecosystem Services (MIMES), Artificial Intelligence for Ecosystem Services (ARIES), and Integrated Valuation of Ecosystem Services and Tradeoffs (InVEST). However, these models are considered recent. Studies about them remain scarce in the literature [31]. The applicability and effectiveness of the adopted tools remain significantly questionable.
Figure 1.8 Ecosystem service index obtained for the northern shoreline of the municipality of Ilhéus, state of Bahia, Brazil.
It is important to emphasize that the analysis of ecosystem services applied to management and decision‐making processes does not need to include economic assessments [31], as shown in the study by Ruckelshaus et al. [38], who evaluated 20 pilot studies about the application of ecosystem services and concluded that many decision‐makers wished to examine the consequences of their actions for traditional market commodities in monetary terms, as well as the non‐economic benefits, including cultural aspects and biodiversity values. The misconception that the assessment of ecosystem services requires economic assessment can be a barrier to scientific development.