Ecology of Indonesian Papua Part One. Andrew J. Marshall
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currents or eddies, the bottom of the sea, or certain bays. Since it is believed that these spirits have the power to control people’s lives, they are feared and respected. Various activities express this fear and respect, in the form of offerings and rituals. These behaviors demonstrate an acknowledgement of the existence and power of the spirits and are thought to foster good relationships between humans and the spirits.
The Papuan people also believe that the spirits of dead ancestors are given power by the Creator God to control people that are still alive. Hence, the living must maintain positive relationships with their ancestors to protect themselves from disasters that may occur if deceased relatives are angered. This is the basis for ancestor worship, which is expressed in various forms, for example, the praise of korwar statues and the mon ceremony in Biak-Numfoor culture, the skeleton payment ritual of Meybrat people, the mbis ceremony of the Asmat. Since the arrival of Islam and Christianity traditional practices, including ancestor worship, are becoming less common. However, when traumatic events occur, such as accidents, illness, and death, many Papua people still seek solace and inspiration from traditional practices.
Major religions, such as Islam and Christianity, arrived in Papua at different times. Islam entered Papua first, brought to the Raja Ampat Islands and Fakfak by traders from the Maluku Islands in the 13th century (Leeden 1980). Christianity was introduced to Papua in Mansinam Island on February 5, 1855, by two missionaries, Ottow and Geissler who were sent by the Dutch Bible institution Utrecht-sche Zendingsvereniging (Kamma 1953). Catholicism came to Papua in 1892. Other Christian denominations, such as Pentecostal, Adventist, and Christian and Missionary Alliance (CMA), came to Papua after World War II. Hinduism entered Papua in the 1960s. According to 1980 census data, 12% of Papuans were Islamic (132,930 people), 23% were Catholic (256,209 people), and 65% were from other Christian denominations (768,279 people).
Ecology and Subsistence Systems
In Papua four broad categories of ecological environments can be recognized: swampy areas, coastal lowlands, foothills and small valleys, and highlands (Walker and Mansoben 1990). Each of these zones supports different subsistence systems. In swampy areas people primarily depend on sago as a staple food, supplemented by fish (e.g., Asmat, Mimika, and Waropen). For people living in coastal and riverine zones (e.g., Biak, Wandammen, Moi, Simuri, Maya, the Raja Ampat Islands), fishing, sago cultivation, and agriculture are the primary economic activities, while hunting serves as an alternative strategy. People living in the foothills and small valleys depend primarily on agriculture and sago, supplemented by hunting and animal farming (e.g., Muyu, Genyem, and Arso). Finally, in the highlands, farming and raising pigs is the primary subsistence strategy (e.g., Dani and Me).
The natural environment influences the technological adaptations and culture (e.g., social organization, belief systems) of the people living there. For example, in the highlands zone, communities live in large houses and have relationships with their extended families, forming clan networks and more complex federations (e.g., Dani). In coastal areas, islands, and riverine zones, people tend to live in small, independent, nuclear family groups of four to five individuals (e.g., North Coast; Koentjaraningrat 1970), although some groups (e.g., the people of Kimaam in Kolepom [Yos Sudarso] Island, and Meren-Vlakte) the people live in more extended families (about 10–15 individuals; Koentjaraningrat 1970).
For several decades researchers have examined the relationship between ecological environments and the diversity of Papuan people. J. van Baal observed that Papuan people who subsist on sago in swampy and riverine zones tend to have larger and more frequent celebratory religious ceremonies compared to the Papuan people who eat root plants or live in the highland zone, and implied that the complexity of rituals and belief systems of the Papuan people is influenced by environmental conditions. Ecological factors also influence the degree of mobility of groups. V. de Bruijn suggested that the inability of the Biak-Numfoor Islands to support people led the communities that lived there to sail, trade, and headhunt along the coasts of north coastal Papua and eastern Indonesia (Maluku and Sulawesi Islands), following which they resettled in various places in north coastal Papua (e.g., Vogelkop, Raja Ampat Islands, Halmahera; de Bruijn 1959). Similarly, W. H. K. Feuilletau de Bruijn argued that the ecology of the Biak-Numfoor Islands prohibited productive farming, and led the peoples living there to develop a more advanced knowledge of astronomy and boat building than is found anywhere else in Papua.
Population Distribution
Census data from 1995 showed that Papua was inhabited by 2,031,620 people, 27% of whom lived in cities and 73% of whom lived in villages, indicating that the majority of Papuans live in rural areas. A slight change in population distribution is indicated by census data from 2000, when 39% lived in towns and 61% lived in rural areas (BPS 2002). The population distribution is changing rapidly, as government has developed new regencies (kabupaten) from formerly 13 regencies to 26 regencies and municipalities now.
Philosophy of Life
Cultural values, manifest in social norms, ethics, regulations, and laws differ substantially among communities. A characteristic that may be highly valued by ethnic group A may not be considered good by ethnic group B; important obligations recognized by ethnic group C may not considered important for the ethnic group D, and so on. Nevertheless, it has been suggested that different cultures can be characterized by their approach to five basic concepts.
Concept of the Meaning of Life
All cultures in the world have their own concepts about the meaning of life, the ultimate purpose of existence, and how the journey of life should be traveled. Religions usually provide guidance that shape beliefs about the meaning of life. Concepts of the meaning of life vary tremendously; for example, some people view life as a misery that cannot be avoided, others see life is a way to redeem past sins, still other as an opportunity to accept and cherish oneself and others regardless of faults.
Perception of Work
Cultures differ widely in their views on the meaning of work. In some cultures work is centrally important, and is one of the ways in which one finds meaning in life. Other cultures view work as a way to gain respect from fellow citizens, still others view it as a way to serve others.
Concept of Human’s Relationship with Nature
Some cultures view nature as a resource solely for human use, others believe that there must be a balance between humanity and the natural world, and that natural laws need to be obeyed to maintain harmony. Still others see nature as an all-powerful force to which humans must submit.
Perceptions of Time
Various cultures have various perceptions of time, particularly in regards planning for the future. Some peoples focus on the present, and have a relatively narrow conception of time. Others are more oriented to the future, and place value on planning for events to come.
Perceptions of Fellow Humans
There are cultures that highly value the vertical relationships in society. Such cultures respect leaders and senior people, and look to them as guides for the community. Other cultures have a more horizontal view, and focus on interpersonal relationships. Some cultures emphasize self-reliance, while others stress the interdependence of people and the need to cooperate.
These five principles can be used to assess the attitudes of people or communities, and are especially important in determining how a culture or community feels about the future, and how they view interactions with the outside world. These are important considerations for those interested in community development. Koentjaraningrat noted that some cultural values are particular assets that facilitate future community development: (1) orientation towards the future; (2) intention to explore the natural environment; (3) placing a highly value on human work; and (4) consideration of fellow humans (Koentjaraningrat 1974).
CULTURAL VALUES OF PAPUAN PEOPLE
Various analyses have suggested that Papuan culture is not particularly innovative when it comes to nature exploration. This may be due to the traditional (and still active) belief that nature has spiritual powers over human life and destiny that are to be feared and respected. This cultural value may contribute to the passivity towards the natural environment. In one way, this passivity is beneficial for nature preservation, as it