Introduction to Japanese Architecture. David Young
Читать онлайн книгу.
buildings are built on adjoining lots where structures from the previous 20-year cycle were dismantled. At the center of each vacant lot is a miniature wooden building that covers a hinoki stick that marks the spot where the sacred "heart pillar" under the center of the new building will be erected. The newly constructed buildings are supposed to be exact copies of the old shrines. After the new shrines have been authenticated by the priests, the old shrines are torn down and their materials are given to tributary shrines throughout Japan. This method ensures a faithful transmission of the old style. Although there have been several lapses in this rebuilding program, the shrines at Ise Jingū were rebuilt for the 61st time in 1993.
Painting of a pilgrimage to Ise. Pilgrimages became very popular during the Edo Period since travel was safe and people had more money than in previous periods. In 1830, for example, 4,600,000 people visited Ise during a six-month period. Sometimes, those who could not make the pilgrimage sent their dogs with friends or relatives to be blessed by the priests at Ise. This illustration is a detail from a scroll by Tanaka Ekishin, housed in the Jingū Chōkokan Museum near Ise Jingū. Photograph courtesy of the Jingū Chōkokan Museum.
Tomb Mounds
In the late Yayoi Period, burial mounds were widely constructed in a variety of styles. By 300 CE, the growing power of the Yamato State was signified by a concentration of standardized mounds in the Kinki area around Nara. The most common type consisted of a rock crypt embedded in an artificial hill, sometimes surrounded by one or more moats.
Some mounds included semicircular or square platforms at the intersection of the head and neck. It is speculated that these platforms may have served as altars.
Historical Origins
According to ancient Chinese records, Japan consisted of warring states around the second century CE. Eventually, over 30 of these political units formed an alliance with the powerful Yamataikoku State and chose its shaman-queen, Himiko, to be the head of Wa (Japan). When she died, member states attempted to find ways to maintain the unity that Himiko had forged, including the standardization of tomb mounds, particularly in the area around Nara, the center of the Yamato State. In western Japan, vast mounds with a keyhole shape were built for clan chiefs, and funeral accessories such as mirrors, jewelry, and iron implements were buried with them. In the sixth century, there was a decrease in the number of large burial mounds, but an increase in small mounds built for common people. By the seventh century, due to new continental influences, the expression of power had shifted from burial mounds to Buddhist temples and magnificent capitals.
Construction
Sometimes natural hills were modified for use as burial mounds. More commonly, however, burial mounds were constructed. Ditches were dug around the perimeter and the dirt was used to build an artificial hill in the middle. Most ditches were dry, but some were filled with water. In addition to supplying soil, ditches also helped to distinguish mounds from natural hills. A nearby village housed the people engaged in the construction of the mound, as well as factories for making burial objects and storehouses for protecting materials and products. It is estimated that the largest kofun, Nintokuryō-kofun, built in Sakai City, Osaka Prefecture, took around 6.8 million man days over a period of nearly 16 years to complete. After the mound was constructed, the surface was covered with stones and terra cotta figures (haniwa).
Derived from Yayoi Period ceramic jars on stands, early haniwa were cylinders placed in circles around the central area on the top of tomb mounds. By the end of the fourth century, these cylinders had been transformed into human figures, and by the sixth century, a variety of human figures, chickens, animals, fish, buildings, and various other items were depicted, often quite realistically.
The main parts of a tomb mound are the coffin (made of wood, stone, or earthenware) for protecting the body, a stone chamber to protect the coffin, and mounded dirt to protect and conceal the stone chamber. There were two main types of chamber: pit chambers, usually for one coffin, and cave chambers for two or more coffins. In the case of a pit style chamber, a stone coffin was taken to the top of the mound and the body was placed inside. After a burial ceremony, the coffin was lowered into the chamber, situated near the top of the mound. The chamber was closed with ceiling stones and covered with dirt. In a cave style chamber, a door on the side was connected to a passage that led to the outside of the mound. Both door and passage were constructed of stone.
Mound of Emperor Nintoku, the largest tomb mound in Japan. Surrounded by three moats, the mound has three terraces on which were placed lines of haniwa. Drawing based on a model at the Osaka Prefectural Chitatsu Asuka Museum.
Seventh-century Ishibutai special historical site at Asuka village near Nara. Ishibutai is the largest stone crypt in Japan. One of the boulders composing the ceiling is estimated to weigh around 75 tons. The stone crypt was presumably covered with a mound. It is not known when the upper portion of the mound was removed.
Imperial tomb mounds, such as the Unebi Mound in Nara Prefecture, burial place of the legendary first emperor Jimmu, are well-tended and are marked by a torii-type (Shinto gate) entrance.
Tombs were usually aligned with the cardinal directions, and the inside of the rock chamber was sometimes decorated with paintings of servants, consorts, or mythical birds and animals associated with basic principles of Chinese and Korean cosmology.
Size and Shape
Tomb mounds come in different shapes and sizes. The most basic are circular, square, and keyhole shapes. There were other types as well, such as a square or round head with a rectangular stem. Most circular and square mounds are under 60 meters in diameter, whereas keyhole mounds sometimes exceeded 400 meters in length. The sides of a mound were terraced and haniwa figures were placed in lines on the terraces. Some smaller mounds had only two terraces, whereas large mounds had as many as five terraces, including a flat area on the top of the mound. The largest mound, Nintokuryō-kofun, referred to above, was 486 meters long and 30 meters high. This is only about one-fifth as high as the Egyptian pyramid Khufu, but the ground surface covered is about five times as great. Mounds were often surrounded by one or more moats, some of which still survive.
The slopes of tomb mounds were usually covered with stones or grass between the haniwa-lined terraces.
Ainu Buildings
Until recently, the Ainu, the indigenous people of northern Japan, lived in small, seasonal settlements (kotan), located in food-gathering areas. For example, in spring they lived along the seashore where they collected fish and seaweed; in summer they lived in the mountains where they hunted animals and collected wild vegetables and berries; and in winter they lived in valleys protected from wind and snow.
Early photograph by Kinoshita Seizō, showing an Ainu couple in traditional costume in front of their house.
Traditional Dwellings
The simplest type of dwelling was a kashi. It consisted of a tripod whose sides were covered with branches and woven mats. It was large enough to provide shelter from the rain for a family of four or five. When more room was needed, a beam was placed between two sets of tripods and the sides enclosed to create a kucha, which housed up to 10 people.
A chise, a larger house with a roof set on walls, allowed enough space to stand up, make a fire, and do other