Counseling the Contemporary Woman. Suzanne Degges-White
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longer. Role transitions, such as marriage and chronological age, have less significance, but accepting responsibility for the consequences of one’s actions and making independent decisions, including around finances, have grown in their importance as signifiers of entry into adulthood (Arnett, 2004, 2007). A sense of independence and autonomy seems be in primary focus as emerging adults transition to full adulthood. Emerging adults have completed their physical growth and are reaching peak physical performance. However, parenting style has been correlated to physical well-being (Reed et al., 2016). Maintaining a high level of physical fitness may or may not be seen as important to an individual. Weight gain is common during emerging adulthood and monitoring one’s weight can be beneficial in addressing this issue (Gorin et al., 2019). The need to consider physical well-being and adapt healthy lifestyle choices is important during this time frame. However, it is also critical to consider that changes in the development of the brain continue well into young adulthood impacting emotional and cognitive development.
Emotional, Behavioral, and Cognitive Changes
Brain development continues through emerging adulthood, including the myelination of areas in the prefrontal cortex and the growth of synapses (Giedd et al., 1999), which improves skills of executive functioning, such as cognitive flexibility, inhibitory control (Miyake et al., 2000), and working memory. With exposure to different responsibilities, young adults transition from formal operations to postformal thought (Arlin, 1984; Sinnot, 1984, 1998), which is characterized by logical solutions to problems and the ability to understand the logic of each of the contradictory perspectives and integrate those perspectives into a large whole (Broderick & Blewitt, 2014). Emotional regulation in emerging adults has been linked to parenting style. Additionally, supportive parents tend to be a factor in the avoidance of risk-taking behaviors including sexual ones by emerging adults (Weisskirch, 2018). Research by Joseph, Zhu, Lynam, and Kelly (2016) confirmed previous research related to brain development in emerging adulthood but also indicated that personality might impact impulsive behaviors as well in emerging adults. Development is complex and there are various factors that need to be considered.
In understanding the complex nature of development, the use of theories can be highly beneficial. In a study by Linsenmeyer and Lucas (2017), Perry’s theory of intellectual and ethical development was used to examine student behaviors. They found that college students moved through the various stages and that social justice issues allow students the opportunity to move towards high stages of development. This fits with the idea that during emerging adulthood a person’s values, beliefs, and worldviews become clearer as reevaluation and self-examination occur (Haney & Rollock, 2018). These developments contribute to a young adult’s ability to begin solidifying their sense of identity.
Identity Development
In Western cultures, the individual is encouraged to develop as an independent and competitive person who measures success through individuation and strength in isolation. Jean Baker Miller, Carol Gilligan, and Judith V. Jordan have questioned this widely accepted perception of human development and argued that this model does not fit for women (Miller, 1984). The differences between women’s experience and portrayed human development in psychological literature appeared to only signify differences in women’s development (Gilligan, 1982).
Women’s identity development as described by Helms (cited in Ossana, Helms, & Leonard, 1992) focuses on how women move from an external, societal definition of womanhood to an internal, personally salient definition of womanhood. The Helms womanist model presents more general development, and its stages resemble Cross’s black identity development model (Boisnier, 2003). Preencounter, stage one, is characterized by conformity to societal views about gender. Women think and behave in ways that devalue females and value males. In encounter, stage two, as new information and experience enters the woman’s life, allowing her to be more salient, she starts to question accepted values and beliefs. Stage three, immersion–emersion, is characterized by the idealization of women and the rejection of male views of women. Women in this stage tend to search for a positive self-affirmation of womanhood and express an intense affiliation with other women. In the final stage, internalization, a woman fully incorporates into her own identity her own positive view of what it means to be a woman. She refuses to be bound by external definitions (Boisnier, 2003). Such transformation results in women adopting positive views of themselves and being able to value themselves as women in whatever role they may choose for themselves rather than any role dictated by any ideology. Despite advance in society and additional choices, there are still gender disparities that occur. For instance, women continue to be paid less them their male counterparts in the workforce and continue to be underrepresented in STEM fields (Kim, Sinatra, & Seyranian, 2018). Social identity theory has been used to explain the different trajectory of women’s lives when it comes to career choice and development. While social membership can change, it is not always an easy process as it begins at an early age (Kim, Sinatra, & Sevranian, 2018). In addition to women’s identity development, early in preadolescent years, sexual identity development starts to take place.
Sexual Identity
Gender identity and sexual identity are only two of many identity domains that are still being developed and crystallized during emerging adulthood. Sexual identity intersects with other domains as well, such as racial, ethnic, or religious identities. Sexual identity has been conceptualized as comprising emotional and cognitive understanding that individuals have about the meaning and significance of numerous aspects of their sexuality, such as their sexual attraction, desires, behaviors, values, and relationships (Horowitz & Newcomb, 2001). This understanding is being organized throughout adolescence into emerging adulthood, helping to create a meaningful sense of one’s sexuality.
Over the past several decades, researchers have been proposing various models of sexual identity development, and most of them resemble a linear progression through stages, starting first with awareness of same-sex attraction, questioning and exploring such attractions, and eventually moving through acceptance, disclosure, and integration of identity (Cass, 1979; Fassinger & Miller, 1996; Meyer & Schwitzer, 1999; Minton & McDonald, 1984). Such models with linear progressions have been critiqued for failing to acknowledge the diversity of the coming-out process (Horowitz & Newcomb, 2001; Kitzinger & Wilkinson, 1995). Other models of sexual identity development attest to diversity of experiences, suggesting that there are multiple trajectories of sexual identity development for lesbian, gay, and bisexual individuals (Fassinger & Miller, 1996; Meyer & Schwitzer, 1999; Morris, 1997).
Simon, Vazquez, Bruun, and Far (2019) found that when it comes to sexual identity, women have greater latitude in deviating from the expected traditional norms and that societal structure is in place to prevent excessive deviation. They found no difference in the degree of exclusion experienced by sexual minority emerging adults based on gender. The challenge for these individuals is dealing with continued stereotypes and expectation in a society that tends to punish those who are different (Simon, Vazquez, Bruuns, & Farr, 2019). This is supported by research conducted by Luk et al. (2018) that found that sexual minority emerging adult females were less likely to enroll in college or complete college. This was due in part to the lack of social support, as indicated by potentially higher rates of bullying in high school (Luk et al., 2018). These negative experiences may impact the choices that a person makes and highlights the importance of relationships in life.
Relationships
During this period of life, women are growing increasingly sure of who they are, and while this involves a growing sense of independence, they are also learning to navigate relationships as adults. Significant changes can occur in both family and friendship relationships. In addition, romantic relationships may begin to receive greater attention and scrutiny as women may begin to plan for long-term commitments.
Relationships with Parents
Relationships with parents evolve and change throughout the lifespan. If the relationship with both parents is perceived as positive by the child before emerging adulthood, the relationship during emerging adulthood is perceived