Engineering Solutions for CO2 Conversion. Группа авторов

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Engineering Solutions for CO2 Conversion - Группа авторов


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is considered. Fluorites, on the contrary, exhibit outstanding chemical and mechanical stability when exposed to oxyfuel and reaction atmospheres, but their low electronic conductivity averts them for being considered for practical applications because of the low O2 permeation performance. One solution is then the use of dual‐phase structures consisting of a mixture of ionic‐conductive and electronic conductive materials. These materials with good O2 permeation and stability when subjected to harsh environments have attracted a lot of interest within the past years in studies focused on oxyfuel applications [47–51], achieving interesting O2 fluxes of c. 3 ml min−1 cm−2 at 925 °C under full CO2 environments [51].

      3.3.2 Application Concepts of OTMs for Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS)

      3.3.3 Existing Developments

Schematic illustration of the simplified process layouts for oxygen permeating membrane modules integrated in oxyfuel power plants following (a) 4-end and (b) 3-end mode approaches, (c) Air Products' planar stacks, and (d) combined system steam reformer-OTM-ATR developed by Praxair.

      Source: Linde.

      With regard to Air Products, the most advanced developments consisted of an intermediate scale testing with a capacity of 100 temperature programme desorption (TPD) O2 (corresponding to an IGCC output of 12 MW) [58] and a membrane vessel consisting of several 1 TPD O2 OTM modules (as those shown in Figure 3.5c), with a total production of 2000 TPD O2. Despite that Air Products developments are the most advanced in terms of integration and demonstration, performance, and TRLs, they have been apparently abandoned since 2015 because of a company structure reorganization.

      Research centers such as RWTH‐Aachen and the Fraunhofer Institute for Ceramics Technologies and Systems (IKTS) – both located in Germany – are conducting other of the most advanced developments in the OTM field. RWTH‐Aachen designed, fabricated, and tested in a realistic environment an OTM module within the OXYCOAL‐AC Project [62, 63]. The main aim of this development was to demonstrate a zero‐CO2 emission proof of concept for coal‐fired power plants using an OTM module as an O2 supply unit for conducting and oxy‐combustion [64]. For that, an OTM module was developed consisting of BSCF tubular membranes (15 m2 membrane area with 570 tubes) with a production capability of 0.6 TPD O2, generating up to 120 kW by combusting pulverized coal. With regard to IKTS, which are specialized in the manufacturing and testing of 3‐end OTM module systems considering BSCF tubes, they constructed the first stand‐alone O2 production unit in 2009 producing 2.7 l min−1 O2 at 850 °C [65], being later improved achieving up to 2 kg O2 h−1 (23.3 l min−1).

      As previously mentioned, the impact of the CO2 emissions on Earth is triggering the energetic transition from fossil fuels to environmentally friendly energy sources. H2 is a promising energy carrier allowing the storage of chemical energy; nowadays, its main use is as a reactant for the synthesis of NH3 and CH3OH, in the refining and other industrial applications. H2 can be used in fuel cell cars, as feed into the natural gas network, and in H2/O2 fuel cells among others [66–69].


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